Communication System

ELE6B13

Dr. Praveen P
 ELE6B13 - Communication System

Contact Hours per Week: 7 (4T + 3L)

Number of Credits: 4
Number of Contact Hours: 60 Hrs.

Course Outcome

To equip the students with basic knowledge in Communication systems

To learn the basics of modulation basics of AM, FM, and PCM
To learn the Digital modulation techniques

Course Outline
Text book:
Module I
1. Communication systems- A. Bruce Carlson, Paul B. Crilly
Communication Systems- Modulation – Need for modulation, Amplitude Modulation- Frequency
2. Electronic Communication Systems - Kennedy and Davis
spectrum of AM wave – Representation of AM wave, Power relation in AM wave, Generation of
AM- DSBSC- Balanced Modulator, SSB Techniques –- Filter system, Phase shift method, Third 3. Communication Systems : Simon Haykins, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 4th Edition, 2001
method. 4. Principles of Communication : Taub and Schilling
5. Electromagnetic wave propagation, KD Prasad
Module II
References
Frequency Modulation – Theory of Frequency and Phase modulation, Mathematical representation
of FM, FM-Noise Triangle, De-emphasis, Pre-emphasis, Comparison of Wide band and Narrow band
FM, FM Generation and Detection-Generation of FM – Direct method, Indirect method, 1. Digital Communications Fundamentals and Applications: Bernard Sklar, Person Education, 2nd
discriminator circuits. edition
2. Modern Digital and Analog communication system: [Link], Oxford University Press, 3rd
Module III edition
Radio receivers- Receiver types, TRF, Super heterodyne receiver, Sensitivity, Selectivity, Image
frequency and its rejection, image frequency and IF amplifiers, AGC- diode detector, AFC, FM
receivers – Amplitude limiting, Stereo-phonic FM multiplex system. Propagation of waves in free Structure of Question Paper
space –Ground wave propagation, surface wave propagation, ionospheric propagation – critical
frequency, MUF, Skip distance. The External question paper is of 2.5 hours duration with 80 marks. Question paper shall
consist of three sections. Section A contains 15short answer type questions of 2 marks each spanning
Module IV the entire syllabus and the candidate can score a maximum of 25 marks. Section B contains 8
Sampling - reconstruction - aliasing - PAM, PWM, PPM – TDM – FDM-CDMA - noise in pulse
paragraph / problem type questions of 5 marks each; two questions from each module (2 quest. x 4
modulation, Pulse code modulation. Quantization noise - Companding law - The PCM system. module = 8 quest.), and the candidate can score a maximum of 35 marks. Section C contains 4 essay
Digital modulation technique ASK, FSK, PSK, DPSK type questions of 10 marks each; one from each module, of which candidate has to answer 2.
electrical variations, to restrict the range of the audio frequencies and then
signalto compress
is weakest. This means that noise in the channel or at the

Block Diagram of Communication System

their amplitude..range. All this is done before any modulation. in wire telephony
the most no It is treated [Link] hf Chapter 2.
noticeable.
processing may be requi~ed, Put in long-distance communications, a transmitter is
required to process,· and_ possibly encode, the incoming information
1-2.4 Receiverso as to make it
suitable for transmission and subsequent reception. There are a great variety of receivers in communications system
Eventually, in a transmitter, the information modulates the of a particular
carrier, receiver
i.e., is is influenced by a great'many requirem
Modulation Demodulation
· important requirements are the modulation system used, the o
superimposed on a high-frequency sine wave. The actual method of modulation varies
its range and the type of display required, which in turn depend
from one system to another. Modulation may be high level or low level,theand the system
intelligence received. Most receivers do conform broadly
itself may be amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, pulse modulation type, as doesor theany
simple broadcast receiver whose block diagr
1-3.
variation or combination of these, depending on the requirements. Figure 1-2 shows a
Receivers run the whole range of complexity from a
high-level amplitude-modulated broadcast transmitter of a type that will ceiver,be with
discussed
headphones, to a far more complex radar recei
in detail in Chapter 6. antenna· arrangements and visual display system, which will
Chapter 6. Whatever the receiver, its most important function

RF voltage
Crystal RF buffer
and power
oscillator amplifier
amplifiers
Intermediate Audio voltage
frequency Demodulator aod
amplifier power amplifiers
Modulation Modulation
Modulation
Modulation in voltage power
processing
amplifiers amplifiers Local oscillator
 Modulation
The process of superimposing information onto a carrier wave by changing its
properties, such as amplitude, frequency, or phase, according to the information
signal.
 Need for Modulation
Why can’t we send the information directly?

1. Practical antenna height.

Physical size of an antenna - at least quarter wavelength (λ/4)
For 15 KHz, the height of the antenna should be 5000 meters.
λ = v/f
Whereas, for 1 MHz, it is 75 meters.
2. To avoid mixing up the signal (interference) - Multiple signals over the same medium

3. Multiplexing is possible

4. E cient transmission - Ground wave propagation (up to 2MHz), ionospheric

propagation (2 - 30 MHz), Line of sight, Satellite communication.

(λ)
2
l
5. Power radiated, Pr ∝ ; l - length of antenna
ffi
 Amplitude Modulation
The amplitude of a carrier signal is varied by modulating signal.
Carrier signal is HF, and the modulating wave is audio.

vm = VmSinωmt

vc = VcSinωct

De nition
A system of modulation in which the amplitude of
the carrier is made proportional the
to

instantaneous amplitude the modulating voltage.

of
fi
 Amplitude Modulation
Instantaneous modulating voltage variations are superimposed onto the carrier
amplitude.
When,
No modulation: Amplitude of wave = amplitude of unmodulated carrier
Modulation: Amplitude of carrier varied by instantaneous amplitude of signal.

Vm
Modulation index, m =
Vc

Amplitude of AM wave
If Vm > Vc distortion will occur M — 0 to 1, if m > 1, over modulation
 Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude of modulated signal, A = Vc + vm
= Vc + Vm . sinωmt
= Vc + m . Vc . sinωmt
= Vc(1 + m . sinωmt)
Amplitude of AM wave Instantaneous voltage of modulated wave, v
Vm v = A . sinθ = A . sinωct
Modulation index, m =
Vc v = Vc . (1 + m . sinωmt) . sinωct
1
{sinx . siny = [cos(x − y) − cos(x + y)]}
2
mVc mVc
v = Vc . sinωct + cos(ωc − ωm)t − cos(ωc + ωm)t
2 2
 Frequency Spectrum of AM
mVc mVc
v = Vc . sinωct + cos(ωc − ωm)t − cos(ωc + ωm)t
2 2
Unmodulated Lower Upper
carrier
ONIC COMMbTNICATION sideband
SYSTEMS sideband
Freq.: fc Freq.: fc − fm Freq.: fc + fm

LSB
I:--- fm
1
C

fm=:j
USB “The bandwidth required is twice the
highest modulating frequency”

Sideband frequency,
FIGURE 3-2 Frequencyf = f ± nf
SB ·spectrum
c , for the rst
m of AM wave.
fi
pair n =1.
 38 ELECTRONIC COMMbTNICATION SYSTEMS
Representation of AM

LSB
I:--- fm
1
C

USB
fm=:j

Frequency Spectrum - 3 components

FIGURE 3-2 Frequency ·spectrum of AM wave.
1. fc - has highest amplitude
2.& 3. Disposed symmetrically, with equal amplitude (Vm ≯ Vc or m ≯ 1).
3-1.2 Representation of AM
Amplitude modulation may be represented in any of t
point of view. Figure 3-2 shows the frequency spectru
(3-7); AM is shown simply as consisting of three discr
 Representation of AM
+

0 H-+'-t-r-cH-H--H+-cH-+++-IH-t-++-l+-1-+++~-~~
t
v
/
\ --- .---- -;t;;--.------------
' I/ -w.+vmsinwmt)
'-.__-"-<"'------------
to the unmodulated carrier frequency. ·

Representation of AM
It will be recalled that Vm = mVe, and it is now possible to use this relation to
calculate the· index (or percent) of modulation from the waveform of Figure 3-3 as
follows: '
Top envelope: A = Vc + Vm . sinωmt
+
Bottom envelope: −A = − (Vc + Vm . sinωmt)

V Vmax − Vmin
Vm =
0 H-+'-t-r-cH-H--H+-cH-+++-IH-t-++-l+-1-+++~-~~
2
t
v Vc = Vmax − Vm
/
\ --- .---- -;t;;--.------------ Vc = Vmax −
Vmax − Vmin
' I/ -w.+vmsinwmt)
'-.__-"-<"'------------
2
Vmax + Vmin
FIGURE 3-3 . Amplitude-modulated wave.
Vc =
2
 which can never exceed half the carrier amplitude [see Equation (3-7), and note that

Representation of AM
m ;j, l].
The appearance of the amplitude-modulated wave is of great interest, and it is
shown in Figure 3-3 for one cycle of the modulating sine wave. It is derived from
Figure 3-1, which showed the amplitude, or what may now be called the top envelope

Top envelope: A = Vc + Vm . sinωmt

of the AM wave, given by the relation A = Ve + Vm sin wmt. The maximum negative
amplitude, or bottom envelope, is given by -A = -(Ve+ Vm sin wmt). The modu-
. lated wave extends between these two limiting envelopes and has a repetition rate equal
to the unmodulated carrier frequency. ·
It will be recalled that Vm = mVe, and it is now possible to use this relation to
calculate the· index (or percent) of modulation from the waveform of Figure 3-3 as

Bottom envelope: −A = − (Vc + Vm . sinωmt)

follows: '

V
Vmax − Vmin
0 H-+'-t-r-cH-H--H+-cH-+++-IH-t-++-l+-1-+++~-~~
t

Vm =
Vmax − Vmin Vm 2
m= =
v
/
\ --- .---- -;t;;--.------------ 2 Vmax + Vmin
' I/ -w.+vmsinwmt)
'-.__-"-<"'------------
Vc
FIGURE 3-3 . Amplitude-modulated wave.
Vc = Vmax − Vm 2

Vc = Vmax −
Vmax − Vmin Vmax + Vmin
2 m=
Vmax + Vmin
Vmax − Vmin
Vc =
2
 Power relation in AM wave
mVc mVc
v = Vc . sinωct + cos(ωc − ωm)t − cos(ωc + ωm)t
2 2
Total power = Unchanged carrier + extra energy in two sidebands.
Amplitude of modulated wave depends on modulation index, so total power will
also depend on modulation index.

2 2 2
Vcarr VLSB VUSB
Pt = + + (rms)
R R R
Unmodulated LSB USB
carrier PLSB PUSB
Pc
VP
All three voltages are rms values. (Vrms = ). R is the resistance of antenna
2
 Power relation in AM wave
2 2 2
Vcarr VLSB VUSB
Pt = + + (rms)
R R R v = Vc . sinωct +
mVc
cos(ωc − ωm)t −
mVc
cos(ωc + ωm)t
2 2
2 2 2
Vcarr (Vc / 2) Vc
Pc = = =
R R 2R
2
2 2 2 2

( )
VSB (mVc /2) m Vc 2 Vc
m
PLSB = PUSB = = ÷R= =
R 2 8R 4 2R
2 2 2 2 2
m Vc m Vc Vc
Total power, Pt = + + Pt 2
2R 4 2R 4 2R m
=1+
m m 2 2 Pc 2
Pt = Pc + Pc + Pc
4 4 Maximum power, Ptmax = 1.5Pc
 It is interesting to note from Equation (3-14) that the maximum power in the
Power relation in AM wave
AM wave is P, = 1.5P, when m = I. This is important, because it is the maximum
power that relevant amplifiers must be capable of handling without distortion.

• EXAMPLE 3-2 A400'wan (400-W) c,µrier is modulated to a

, Calculate the total power in the modulated wave·.
' ' '"·' ·.-.;;,
SOLUTION

;P, = P.{f~ 2')· "'"""'' .. ,

!' ' '· ; /',
m
'"-,.
='[Link]•

. p 10 10. . :
p = 't
[Link] =. 8.47 kW
: C l+m2/2 I+ 0.62/2

Current calculations The situation which very often arises in AM is that the modu-
 Power relation in AM wave
Currents of modulated and unmodulated waves can be measured. So we need to nd
modulation index (m) from these currents.

Pt 2
m
=1+
Pc 2
2
2

( Ic )
Pt It R It 2
m
= = =1+
Pc Ic R
2 2

It 2 2
m m
= 1+ or It = Ic 1+
Ic 2 2

fi
Power relation in AM wave
(3-15)
 Generation of AM
44 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

5
4
'
1. AM transmitter 1 2
3
7

12

Generate high-power AM
8

E cient and complex AXA

0

2. AM generator (lab) (o) Current pulses to tuned circuit

4 5 6
+

Generate low-power AM
7
3
1 2
8

Simple circuits
V 12

(bl Tuned-circuit AM voltage.

Flywheel
FIGURE 3-4 e ectrequirements
Current of thefortuned
AM.

circuit - to generate AM
were the only one, would initiate a damped oscillation in the
tion would have· an initial amplitude proportional to the size
decay rate dependent on the time constant of the circuit. Sinc
O/p of class C power ampli er make proportional to modulating voltage - by applying it
the tank circuit here, each pulse will cause a complete s
in series with a DC [Link] to the size of this puls~. This will be followed
ffi
ff
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 Generation of AM
O/p of class C power ampli er make proportional to modulating voltage - by applying it
in series with a DC supply. AMPLITUDE MODULATIOi:,I 45
Cathode (emitter), grid (base), and anode (plate or collector) - modulation is possible.
'7 Antenna .
( High-level ) ( Low-level
modulation modulation

-
Class C Class 8
RF Class A Class C
RF RF linear
crystal I+ AF buffer RF power I+ outputt pow,,
oscillate,.. ampflfier amplifiers amplifier amplifier

• Or frequency

.,~ -
synthesizer

...
AF AF Modulator tOr jus1 power
AF processing AF class B .,.. !AF class B amplifier, in
"' '"' amplifier. power output low-level syst om

'" filtering amplifiers amplifier)

If modulating signal is applied to

FIGURE 3-5 AM transmitter block diagram.
- plate (collector) — High-level modulation (Large audio power required)
- Cathode/grid — Low-level modulation (High bandwidth required after modulation)
fi
 Generation of AM
O/p of class C power ampli er make proportional to modulating voltage - by applying it
in series with a DC supply.
Cathode (emitter), grid (base), and anode (plate or collector) - modulation is possible.
48 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
ONIC C0!v1MUNICATI0N SYSTEMS

C8 (RF)

- +
v.,

FIGURE 3-8 Plate-modulation equivalent circuit.

Grid-modulated class C ampli er
FIGURE 3-6 Grid-modulated class C amplifier. Plate-modulation
Transformer modulation using tri!)de The equi
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NIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

AM, Double Side Band Full Carrier (DSBFC),

as been proposed from time to time. This form of SSB would require no changes in
or o cially A3E modulation
omestic receivers.
mVc mVc
v = Vc . sinωct + cos(ωc − ωm)t − cos(ωc + ωm)t
The AM power equation states that the ratio of total power to carrier power is
iven by (I+ m2/2):l. If the carrier is suppressed, only the sideband power remains.

2 2
As this is only Pc(m2/2), a two-thirds saving is effected at 100 percent modulation, and

( 2 )
2
m
ven more is saved as the depth of modulation is reduced. If one of the sideba!).ds is
ow also suppressed, the remaining power is Pc(m2/4), a further saving of 50 percent
P =P 1+ Contains Carrier, USB, and LSB.
ver carrier-suppressed AM. The situation is best illustrated with an example, as fol-
ows: t c

EXAMPLE 4-1 ·Calculate the percentage power saving when the carrier .and one of .
the sidebands are suppressed in an AM wave modulated to a depth of (a) 100 percent •
and (I,) 50 percent. ·
SOLUTION

(a)
.... ( m2) = P,.(1 + 12).". 1.5P, .
P, = P, 1 +.
2 2
.. m2 12 . ..
Ps• = P,~ = Pc4' = 0.25P,
. c ·. 1;5 '- 0.25 1.25
Savm,g = ... _ = Ll = 0.833 = 8.3.3%
15

(b)
•P, 'ii"}',
. (1 + T0.52) ". 1.125P,

·. . . . J.125 ,.. o.0625 ~.0625 =0.9~= ~.4%

8avmg--- -
Ll25 1.125 ., .

ffi
DSBSC (Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier)

Time domain Frequency domain

DSBSC (Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier)
Balanced Modulator
2
Non-linear resistor (i = av + bv )
 DSBSC (Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier)
Balanced Modulator - Diode

vo = P . cos(ωmt) + Q . cos(ωc − ωm)t + Q . cos(ωc + ωm)t

Modulating Lower Side Upper Side
Signal Band Band

Modulating signal eliminated by LC Band Pass Filter.

DSBSC (Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier) (a)

Balanced Modulator - FET

D
(v1 +v2 )

1,~2~r
T,

s
ip 1 i
- + -11 +
~II iP2 !
t

-
D
G
T2
(v1 -v2 )
s
(b)

FIGURE 4-3 Balanced modulators. (a) Diode; (b) FET.

 DSBSC (Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier)
Ring Modulator

D1, D2, D3, D4 - Ring connection

Carrier is square wave
- +ve half cycle - D1 & D3 conduct.
- -ve half cycle - D2 & D4 conduct.
 Such a filter must have a flat bandJ>_ass and extremely high attenuation outside

Single Side Band (SSB)

the bandpass. There is no limit on this; the higher the attentuation, the better. In radio
communications systems, the frequency range used for voice is 300 to about 2800 Hz
in most cases. If it is required to suppress the lower sideband and if the transmitting
Balance Modulator for DSBSC generation, and then remove the unwanted
frequency is/, then the lowest frequency that this filter must pass without attenuation is sideband.
J+ 300 Hz, whereas the highest frequency that must be fully attenuated is / -
1. Filter System
Crystal
oscillator
SSB out to
linear amplifiers

Sideband
Balanced Balanced
Buffer suppression
modulator I I mixer-
filter I
I
I I
I
I I
I I
I Filter I Crystal
AFino---,;,..j Audio
amplifier
I

·-· for other

sideband
-·
• oscillator or
synthesizer

Unwanted sideband
FIGURE 4-4 removed
Filter methodby a ltersuppression.
of sideband - at band pass lter with high attenuation
outside pass band.
Challenges - Filter design.
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fl
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 Single Side Band (SSB)
1. Filter System
66 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

2. Phase Shift Method

Balanced
modulator
AF in Audio M1
amplifier
Carrier
90° phase
shifter
_sse out'
Adder
AF '---+- to linear
~~~~amplifiers
90° phase
Carrier
shifter
source

Balanced
modulator
~--~K-~~ M2

FIGURE 4-5 Single sideband by phase shift.

Two balanced modulators.
One sideband is in phase, and the other is out of phase.
voltage (shifted through 90°) and the carrier voltage. Sometimes the modulating volt-
 Single Side Band (SSB) - Phase Shift Method
Output of M1,
∘ ∘
v1 = cos[(ωct + 90 ) − ωmt] − cos[(ωct + 90 ) + ωmt]
66 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

∘ ∘
= cos(ωct − ωmt + 90 ) − cos(ωct + ωmt + 90 ) Balanced
modulator

Output of M2,
AF in Audio M1
amplifier
Carrier

∘ ∘
v2 = cos[ωct − (ωmt + 90 )] − cos[ωct + (ωmt + 90 )]
90° phase
shifter
_sse out'
Adder
AF '---+- to linear
~~~~amplifiers
∘ ∘
= cos(ωct − ωmt − 90 ) − cos(ωct + ωmt + 90 )
90° phase
Carrier
shifter
source

Balanced
The output of the adder, ~--~K-~~
modulator
M2

∘
vO = v1 + v2 = 2cos(ωct + ωmt + 90 ) FIGURE 4-5 Single sideband by phase shift.

voltage (shifted through 90°) and the carrier voltage. Sometimes the modulating v
age phase shift is arranged slightly differently. It is made +45° for one of the balan
modulators and -45° for the other, but the result is the same.
Both modulators produce an output consisting only of sidebands. It will
shown· that both upper sidebands lead the input carrier voltage by 90°. One of the lo
Phase-shifting a large range of audio frequencies.
·sidebands leads the reference voltage by 90°, and the other lags it by 90°. The
lower sidebands are thus out of phase, and when combined in the adder, they can
each other. The upper sidebands are in phase at the adder and therefore add, giv
 voltages have been applied to the first pair of balanced moduiators, the low-pass filters

1. Filter System
Single Side Band (SSB)
whose cutoff frequency is f O ensure that the input to the last pair of balanced moc;lula-
tors results in the proper eventual sideband suppression.
The proof of this method is unduly complex, and therefore not given here. It
2. Phase Shift Method may be shown that all lower sideband signals will be canceled for the configuration of

3. Third Method / Weaver’ Method

Balanced ..1:--- Balanced
Low-pass
modulator modulator
filter
Ml M2

-~- 2 COS Wot

900 phase
2 COS Wei

90° phase
shifter shifter
AF RF.
A
sin Wal carrier carrier
D
gener~tor generator Adder
AF in
2 sin w 0 t ! 2 sin Wet
SSB
out

Balanced Balanced
Low-pass
filter __.- modulator
~-- M4
FIGURE 4-6 Third method of SSB generation.
4 balanced modulators.
Uses an audio frequency carrier and phase shifting - instead of a large range audio signal