ISSN 0214 - 9915 CODEN PSOTEG

Psicothema 2020, Vol. 32, No. 1, 33-39

Copyright © 2020 Psicothema
doi: 10.7334/psicothema2019.142 [Link]

The effect of adverse childhood experiences on deviant and altruistic

behavior during emerging adulthood
Aitana Gomis-Pomares and Lidón Villanueva
Universitat Jaume I Castellón

Abstract Resumen
Background: The experience of coping with negative events in early ages La influencia de las experiencias adversas infantiles sobre la conducta
(childhood and adolescence) has consistently been linked to some specific antisocial y altruista en la adultez emergente. Antecedentes: sufrir
deviant behaviors, such as juvenile justice involvement or persistence in experiencias negativas durante la infancia se ha relacionado con
crime. In contrast, very few studies have focused on the link between comportamientos antisociales, como la implicación en la justicia juvenil
Adverse Childhood Experiences and altruistic behavior. The objective o la persistencia en el crimen. Sin embargo, en comparación con la
of this study is to examine the possible influence of Adverse Childhood conducta antisocial, muy pocos estudios se han enfocado en la relación
Experiences on the social behavior exhibited in emerging adulthood entre las Experiencias Adversas Infantiles y la conducta altruista. Por
(specifically deviant and altruistic behavior). Method: The study population ello, el objetivo de este estudio es examinar la posible influencia de dichas
consisted of 490 young adults between the ages of 18 and 20, with a mean experiencias en el comportamiento social manifestado durante la adultez
of 18.90 years (SD = .77). All voluntarily completed the following self- emergente (conducta antisocial y altruista concretamente). Método:
report questionnaires: the Adverse Childhood Experiences questionnaire, la muestra estaba formada por 490 jóvenes con edades comprendidas
the Deviant Behavior Scale, and the Altruistic Scale. Results: Linear entre 18 y 20 años, con una media de 18.90 años (DT = .77). Todos
regression models found that Adverse Childhood Experiences were completaron voluntariamente los siguientes cuestionarios de autoinforme:
strong, positive predictors of deviant behaviors. Moreover, specific Adverse Childhood Experiences questionnaire, Deviant Behavior Scale y
Adverse Childhood Experiences (physical abuse for deviant behavior, and Altruistic Scale. Resultados: los modelos de regresión lineal mostraron
emotional neglect for altruistic behaviors) had notable, differential effects. que las Experiencias Adversas Infantiles eran fuertes predictoras de las
Conclusions: The prevention or early detection of Adverse Childhood conductas antisociales. Además, había experiencias adversas específicas
Experiences during childhood could contribute to reducing maladaptive (abuso físico para la conducta antisocial y negligencia emocional para las
patterns of behavior and to increasing altruistic patterns during emerging conductas altruistas) que produjeron un efecto diferencial y destacable.
adulthood. Conclusiones: la prevención o detección temprana de las Experiencias
Keywords: Adverse childhood experiences, deviant behavior, altruism, Adversas durante la Infancia podría contribuir a reducir los patrones
emerging adulthood, different impact. de conducta inadaptados y a aumentar los patrones altruistas durante la
adultez emergente.
Palabras clave: experiencias adversas en la infancia, conducta antisocial,
altruismo, adultez emergente, impacto diferencial.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are defined as 1998). In overall terms, adverse experiences are more common
traumatic experiences that may include sexual, physical or among children under 6 years of age than among older children
emotional abuse or emotional and physical neglect, as well as (Thompson et al., 2015). The results obtained by Kerker et al.
adverse family circumstances that occurred during childhood (2015) indicate that almost all children between 18 and 71 months
or adolescence. Studies show that adverse experiences tend to be of age (98.1%) have experienced at least one adverse event, and
frequent and co-occurring: two-thirds of the population suffered 50.5% have experienced 4 or more. On average, the first exposure
to ACEs occurs at one and a half years of age (Dong et al., 2004).
from at least one before the age of 18, and over 10% experienced
Once an adverse event occurs in a child’s life, the likelihood of
5 or more (Bellis, Lowey, Leckenby, & Hughes, 2014; Felitti et al.,
additional ACEs increases significantly, which is why a chain of
early risks opens up.
Received: May 20, 2019 • Accepted: September 20, 2019 For this reason, various studies have increasingly established
Corresponding author: Aitana Gomis-Pomares the importance of early life experiences in people’s health
Dpto. Psicología Evolutiva, Educativa, Social y Metodología throughout the life course (Felitti et al., 1998; Hughes et al., 2017).
Universitat Jaume I Castellón
12071 Castellón (Spain) Individuals who have adverse childhood experiences during
e-mail: apomares@[Link] childhood or adolescence tend to have more physical and mental

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 Aitana Gomis-Pomares and Lidón Villanueva

health problems as adults than those who do not have ACEs. All However, besides the cumulative effect of ACEs, we can also
the advances made in this field lead to the theoretical assumption focus on the differential contribution of each specific ACE to the
that childhood adversity is strongly linked to social, emotional adoption of risk behaviors. Widom and Maxfield (1996) conducted
and cognitive impairment, and to the adoption of health risk one of the first studies to address the relationship between child
behaviors that promote a wide range of negative outcomes: early maltreatment and deviant behavior. The results showed that
disease, disability, social problems, and even early death (Felitti children who were victims of physical abuse and/or neglect were
et al., 1998; Hughes et al., 2017). These risk behaviors, such as almost twice as likely to be arrested as a result of violent crime
alcohol and drug abuse, or deviant behaviors (either consciously or as adults. Same results were also reported by Piquero and Sealock
unconsciously) may act as effective coping devices in the extreme (2000), in a young offending population that was also substance-
short term to reduce the stress levels caused by experiencing these abusing. Meanwhile, other studies found household members
adverse situations. who had been physically abused and incarcerated in childhood/
It is generally the cumulative impact of multiple ACEs that adolescence to be the most significant predictors of involvement
leads to risk behaviors and negative outcomes in later life (Felitti with the juvenile justice system (Baglivio el al., 2014; Basto-
& Anda, 2010). However, the individual contributions of the Pereira et al., 2016). As is apparent, physical abuse is the most
specific ACEs must also be considered, as some studies claim they consistent predictor of deviant behavior, in both juveniles (Braga
have differential impact (Agnew, 2001; Sharp, Peck, & Hartsfield, et al., 2017; Maas, Herrenkohl, & Sousa, 2008), and young adults
2012). For example, Agnew (2001) argues that most cumulative (Braga, Cunha, & Maia, 2018). Nevertheless, the research on the
measures have only a moderate impact on crime. Meanwhile, differential impact of ACEs on deviant behaviour has been limited
different types of experiences may have a strong impact on crime, in comparison to their cumulative impact.
whereas others have little or no impact. In this study, we analyse In comparison to deviant behavior, very few studies have
both the cumulative and individual impacts of childhood adverse focused on the link between ACEs and altruistic behavior (Music,
experiences on the adoption of non-adaptive strategies by young 2011). These studies have highlighted empathy difficulties in
adults. physically abused children, during their middle childhood
Deviant and non-altruistic behaviors can be regarded as risk (Margolin & Gordis, 2000). Other studies have mainly focused
strategies leading to negative outcomes, such as social problems, on child maltreatment victims that do not show serious negative
judicial involvement, and imprisonment. Deviant behavior might be sequelae, and are therefore resilient. One of the multiple personal
conceptualized as behavior that violates social norms and values, characteristics that may foster this resilience is altruism (Mrazek
including a wide range of acts such as theft, lying and assault. & Mrazek, 1987). Further exploration of the neglected relationship
The definition includes antisocial behaviors that are violations of between ACEs and altruism is therefore extremely relevant.
criminal law, usually referred to as offences or crimes, as well In overall terms, an early identification of adverse childhood
as acts that are not subject to sanctions by the criminal justice experiences is crucial outstanding for preventing deviant behavior
system, such as externalizing or disruptive behaviour (Braga, and fostering altruistic behavior, thereby preventing negative
Gonçalves, Basto-Pereira, & Maia, 2017). Meanwhile, altruistic outcomes in the long-term.
behavior is a concept that involves human actions being taken for Previous studies agree that this cumulative impact of ACEs on
the benefit of others, i.e., living for others (Eisenberg, 2014). This later developments is strong in the long term (Felitti et al., 1998).
concept is encompassed within the prosocial behavior that consists Accordingly, most of the studies examined the influence of adverse
of a broad category of actions which are defined by society as childhood experiences in later stages of adulthood, but not in the
generally beneficial to other people (Piliavin, Dovidio, Gaertner, period of emerging adulthood, a new conception of development
& Clark, 1981). for the period from the late teens through the twenties, with a
According to the Integrated Cognitive Theory of Antisocial focus on ages 18-25 (Arnett, 2000). It is precisely in this emerging
Potential (Farrington, 2017), experiences of child and adolescent adulthood period that participation in illegal activities peaks,
maltreatment, such as problematic family environments, anti- and tends to decline thereafter (Stolzenberg & D’Alessio, 2008).
social models, delinquent parents and/or peers or traumatic Moreover, due to this specific age range analyzed, this study does
experiences, are factors that foster deviant behavior in the long not present the weakness of retrospective designs, which present
run. Likewise, according to Sampson and Laub (2003) being some difficulties with remembering the negative events. In fact,
exposed to adverse situations such as poverty, or toxic family older people report less ACEs (Dube et al., 2003). Finally, there
environments, provides more favourable conditions for future is limited research studying childhood adversity experiences in
criminal behavior. For example, a child who experiences a Spanish populations compared to English-speaking countries. As
negligent family environment may receive little affection, limited Cronholm et al., (2015) found, some ACEs might differentially
family supervision, as well as carelessness on the part of their legal impact specific demographic groups that are often neglected by
guardians. Due to negligent parenting practices, the probability of most studies in the field, such as African Americans, Hispanics,
this young person establishing a weakened social bond is higher, and Asians. Cultural nuances and invariances in childhood
which is the central aspect in delinquent behavior (Sampson & adversity are worthy of analysis.
Laub, 2003). Involvement with the juvenile justice system or The purpose of this study is therefore to explore the overall
persistence in crime (Basto-Pereira, Miranda, Ribeiro, & Maia, and differential effect of childhood adversity experiences on
2016; Craig, 2019; Dierkhising et al., 2013), have consistently been the adoption of risk strategies (deviant behaviors), and on the
found to be related to adverse childhood experiences. Moreover, possible lack of positive strategies (altruistic conducts), in a
ACEs not only increase the chances of problems with the juvenile Spanish emerging adult population. It is also hypothesized that
justice system, but also increase the risk of re-offending (Baglivio having experienced more ACEs during childhood will increase
et al., 2014). deviant behavior and reduce altruistic behavior during emerging

34
 The effect of adverse childhood experiences on deviant and altruistic behavior during emerging adulthood

adulthood. Moreover, we expect to find a differential contribution subject is asked about a series of behaviours (e.g., “Giving up your
of ACE subtypes to the adoption of both behavioral strategies. place in a queue to someone who needs it” in the supermarket,
bank, etc.). All the subscales are answered on a five-point scale
Method (where 1 corresponds to “totally disagree” and 5 to “totally
agree”).
Participants
Procedure
The total study population consisted of 490 young adults, with
37.6% males and 62.4% females. The ages ranged from 18 to 20 The collected data is part of the International study of pro/
years, with a mean of 18.90 years (SD= .77). Only a small portion antisocial behavior in young adults SOCIALDEVIANCE1820
of the population belonged to an ethnic minority (7.3%) consisting Research Project. Data were collected in different contexts: 280
of 2.3% Romanian (N= 11), 1.9% Latin-American (N= 9), 1% from universities (57.14%), 140 from technical and leisure centers
African origin (N= 5) and 2.1% belonging to other nationalities (28.57%) and 70 from adult education centers (14.28%), after
(N= 10), and the rest were of Spanish origin. As for the level of obtaining consent from the University Ethics Committee and the
schooling of the participants, 4.3% presented primary school level, participants. The researchers visited these centers and explained
38.7% high school studies and 57%, university studies”. the objective of the study. All participants took part voluntarily,
and they were entitled to enter in a voucher draw. They were
Instrument informed that the questionnaire was anonymous, and the data
was strictly confidential. The questionnaires were administered
The “Adverse Childhood Experiences” (ACEs) questionnaire collectively, in the presence of the researchers.
(Felitti et al., 1998; Spanish translation carried out by the authors
of this study) evaluates adverse childhood and adolescent Data analysis
experiences: abuse, neglect and household dysfunction during
the first 18 years of life. The following ten adverse experiences First, frequencies and Chi-Square (χ2) tests were conducted to
were assessed: sexual (4 items), physical (4 items) and emotional examine whether the males and females differed in their reported
abuse (3 items); physical (5 items) and emotional neglect (3 items); ACEs. Second, ANOVA analysis for independent samples and
living in a household with domestic violence (3 items), parental post-hoc tests were carried out to compare if there were any
divorce (1 item), household substance abuse (2 items), mental differences between the subjects who did not have any ACE, those
illness in the household (2 items) and incarceration of a member who had from 1 to 3 ACEs, and those who had more than 4 ACEs.
of the household (1 item). For the areas of emotional and physical Subsequently, bivariate correlations were carried out between the
abuse, neglect and witnessing domestic violence, the frequency variables under study of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE),
with which the person experienced them is measured from “0 = Deviant Behavior (DVB) and Altruism (AAS). Finally, a series of
Never” to “4 = Too Often”. For the remaining experiences, the linear regressions were also performed to determine whether the
classification is “Yes” or “No”. Each adverse experience (ACE total and the different components of the ACE were predictors of
dimension) was dichotomized according to the original author’s deviant and altruistic behaviors.
instructions (Felitti et al., 1998; Pinto, Correia, & Maia, 2014). If
the subject scored one or more items as often or very often the Results
category was considered present, and otherwise it was considered
absent. Descriptive results
The “Deviant Behavior Scale” (DVB) by Sanches, Gouveia-
Pereira, Marôco, Gomes, & Roncon (2016), includes both illegal Table 1 shows the prevalence of each specific ACE in the total
behavior and rule-breaking behavior that is not illegal (e.g. lying sample and depending on gender. All ACE percentages were
to adults, or skipping school for several days without parental higher for women than men, except for emotional neglect and
consent). The scale contains 19 items, answered in a two-point household substance abuse. However, significant differences were
response style (No/Yes), regarding whether the participants have only found in physical and sexual abuse, and mental illness or
engaged in each of the 19 behaviors during the previous year (12- suicide, with a higher incidence in women. In the case of women,
month DVB). The total score for deviant behaviors is obtained by 64.5% of respondents reported at least 1 of the 10 ACEs, and
the sum of positive answers. The participants were also asked to 33.4% reported 2 or more. The percentages for men were 57.3%
write the number of behaviors they had engaged in throughout and 20.8%, respectively.
their entire life (Lifelong DVB). When the subjects were grouped into 3 groups according to
The “Altruistic Scale (A.A.S)” (Loureiro & Lima, 2009) is the number of ACEs they presented (0 ACEs, 37.6%; 1-3 ACEs,
composed of 12 items, organized in three subscales: Cognition 52.8% and 4 or more ACEs, 8.2%), the results of the ANOVA
(4 items), Affection (4 items), and Behavior (4 items). For the analysis for independent samples indicated significant differences
assessment of the cognitive dimension, participants are asked in the variables of deviant behavior over the last year (p = .021*),
to indicate their level of agreement with a series of statements and lifelong deviant behavior (p = .002*). No difference between
(e.g., “I think that, in this world, all you have to do is take care of groups was found for the altruism variable (p = .742). Tukey’s
yourself”). The affective component is made up of issues about post-hoc tests indicated that these differences in the two deviant
which the subject is asked to indicate how he or she would feel if behavior variables (lifelong and last year) were between the group
the actions described were carried out (e.g., “Caring for someone, of subjects that presented no ACE and the group of subjects with 1
without expecting a reward”). In the behavioral component, the to 3 ACEs, compared to the group with 4 or more ACEs.

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 Aitana Gomis-Pomares and Lidón Villanueva

Table 1 Table 3
Prevalence of each category of ACE and ACE score by gender Linear regression of the total ACE variable on 12-month DVB

Category of ACE Prevalence (%) B SE t p LL UL

Women Men Total Woman (1) -.14 .02 -9.36 .000* -.17 -.11
p
(N = 301) (N = 181) (N = 490) Age -.01 .01 -1.09 .274 -.03 .01
Total ACE .01 .01 2.44 .015* .00 .02
Abuse
Emotional 9.3 7.2 8.8 .419 Constant .50 .18 2.87 .004 .16 .85
Physical 18.9 11.6 16.4 .039*
Sexual 13.3 4.4 10.0 .002* N = 490; R2= .164; R2 adjusted =.158; * p<.05

Neglect
Emotional 1.7 4.4 2.7 .073
Table 4
Physical .00 .00 .00 -
Linear regression of the total ACE variable on Altruism
Household dysfunction
Parental Separation or Divorce 25.6 24.3 26.1 .755 B SE t p LL UL
Domestic violence 7.6 6.1 7.6 .516
Household Substance Abuse 17.9 18.2 18.4 .936 Woman (1) .23 .04 5.37 .000* .14 .31
Mental illness or Suicide 31.6 21.0 28.0 .012* Age .02 .03 .80 .424 -.03 .07
Incarcerated household member 5.0 4.4 4.7 .779 Total ACE -.02 .01 -1.40 .164 -.05 .01
ACE score Constant 2.42 .50 4.85 .000 1.44 3.41
0 35.5 42.7 37.6
1 31.1 36.5 32.0 N = 490; R2= .061; R2 adjusted= .055; * p<.05
2 16.9 9.6 14.1
3 7.4 5.6 6.8
4 3.4 2.2 3.1 Predictive analysis of the scales of the ACE
≥5 5.7 3.4 5.1

* p<.05 An analysis of the linear regression of the different components of

the ACE and the demographic variables of gender and age, highlighted
the following results. In Table 5, the variables that predicted the
Bivariate correlations between the different variables in
presence of deviant behaviors throughout life were gender, physical
the study showed a positive association between total ACE and
abuse and household substance abuse. This indicates that being a
lifelong deviant behavior (r = .14; p = .002*), and last year (r =
man, having suffered from physical abuse in childhood and someone
.09; p = .003*), and a negative correlation between total ACE and
in the home having abused substances are significant predictors of
altruism (r = -.04; p = .361).
deviant behaviors throughout the course of life. This first model was
statistically significant, explaining 15% of the variance.
Predictive analysis of the total ACE score
The prediction of the different categories of ACE on DVB
A linear regression was carried out with the different dependent during last year is presented in Table 6. Gender and physical abuse
variables of DVB overlife, 12-month DVB, and altruism and the were the two variables that predicted deviant behaviors during
independent variables of gender, age and total ACE score. As the previous year. This means that, to a certain extent as in the
seen in Table 2, where the variable lifelong DVB was considered, previous model, being a man and having suffered from physical
gender and total ACE were significant variables, explaining 12.5% abuse during childhood is significantly linked to the probability of
of the variance. In Table 3, in which the dependent variable was deviant behaviors during the previous year. This model explained
DVB over the last year, gender and total ACE also appeared as the the 16% of the total variance.
two significant variables in the model, explaining the 15.8%. This Finally, Table 7 shows how the different dimensions of ACE and
means that being a man and having experienced adverse situations demographic variables predict altruism. In this case, gender and
in childhood are predictive variables of deviant behaviors in the emotional neglect were the two variables that explained 6.4% of the
first 18 years of life and during the last year. Table 4 shows that total variance. Being a woman and not having suffered emotional
the only predictor variable of altruism was gender, i.e. being a neglect in childhood therefore increase the level of altruism.
woman was a good predictor of altruistic behaviors. This model
only explained 5.5% of the total variance. Discussion

Table 2 This study was conducted to assess the overall and differential
Linear regression of the total ACE variable on Lifelong DVB effect of childhood adverse experiences on social behavior in a
B SE t p LL UL
Spanish sample of emerging adults. The first hypothesis predicted
that having suffered from ACEs during childhood will increase
Woman (1) -2.48 .33 -7.45 .000* -3.13 -1.82 the adoption of deviant behaviors and the absence of altruism
Age .29 .21 1.41 .159 -.17 .71 conducts. This hypothesis about the cumulative impact of ACEs
Total ACE .36 .11 3.18 .002* .14 .58 was partly supported by the results. First, having experienced
Constant .72 3.99 .18 .856 -7.12 8.57 ACEs during childhood appeared to be a good predictor of deviant
behavior not only during the previous year (12-month DVB),
N = 490; R2= .130; R2 adjusted =.125; * p<.05
supporting previous studies (Basto-Pereira et al., 2016; Craig,

36
 The effect of adverse childhood experiences on deviant and altruistic behavior during emerging adulthood

Table 5
Linear regression of Each Category of ACE on Lifelong DVB

B SE t p LL UL

Woman (1) -2.55 .34 .31 .000* -3.21 -1.89

Age .27 .21 1.27 .205 -.15 .68
Emotional Abuse -.42 .49 -.86 .393 -1.39 .55
Physical Abuse 1.15 .39 2.95 .003* .38 1.92
Sexual Abuse .12 .19 .58 .564 -.28 .51
Emotional Neglect .09 .05 1.91 .057 -.01 .19
Physical Neglect -.32 .10 -.32 .749 -.23 .17
Parental Separation or Divorce -.24 .38 -.65 .519 -.99 .50
Domestic Violence -.32 .31 -1.02 .308 -.94 .30
Household Substance Abuse .79 .34 2.31 .002* .12 1.47
Mental Illness or Suicide -.30 .29 -.79 .428 -.80 .34
Incarcerated household member .73 .84 .87 .385 -.92 2.39
Constant 1.24 3.97 .31 .756 -6.57 9.04

2 2
N = 490; R = .173; R adjusted= .150; * p<.05

Table 6
Linear regression of Each Category of ACE on 12-Month DVB

B SE t p LL UL

Woman (1) -.14 .02 -9.28 .000* -.17 -.11

Age -.01 .01 -1.09 .278 -.03 .01
Emotional Abuse -.01 .02 -.39 .695 -.05 .04
Physical Abuse .04 .02 2.17 .030* .01 .07
Sexual Abuse .01 .01 .98 .327 -.01 .03
Emotional Neglect .01 .01 1.67 .096 -.01 .01
Physical Neglect .01 .01 .26 .797 -.01 .01
Parental Separation or Divorce .01 .02 .78 .436 -.02 .05
Domestic Violence -.02 .01 -1.14 .255 -.04 .01
Household Substance Abuse .01 .02 .63 .529 -.02 .04
Mental Illness or Suicide -.02 .01 -1.13 .259 -.04 .01
Incarcerated household member .03 .04 .75 .453 -.05 .10
Constant .49 .18 2.81 .005 .15 .84

N = 490; R2= .188; R2 adjusted =.166; * p<.05

Table 7
Linear regression of Each Category of ACE on Altruism

B SE t p LL UL

Woman (1) .23 .04 5.28 .000* .14 .31

Age .02 .03 .71 .481 -.03 .07
Emotional Abuse -.02 .06 -.32 .751 -.15 .10
Physical Abuse -.07 .05 -1.43 .152 -.17 .03
Sexual Abuse .01 .03 .17 .868 -.05 .06
Emotional Neglect -.01 .01 -2.24 .026* -.03 -.01
Physical Neglect -.01 .01 -.07 .948 -.03 .03
Parental Separation or Divorce -.03 .05 -.63 .526 -.13 .07
Domestic Violence .06 .04 1.46 .144 -.02 .13
Household Substance Abuse -.02 .05 -.41 .684 -.12 .07
Mental Illness or Suicide .02 .04 .53 .595 -.05 .09
Incarcerated household member .05 .11 .43 .668 -.16 .25
Constant 2.51 .50 4.99 .000 10.52 3.50

N = 490; R2 =.089; R2 adjusted = .064; * p<.05

37
 Aitana Gomis-Pomares and Lidón Villanueva

2019), but also over the entire life (lifelong DVB). In specific Macfie, & Emde, 1997). Problems with the self may consequently
terms, presenting 4 or more ACEs was a major turning point in contribute to problems with other selves. In fact, neglected
the probability of exhibiting deviant behaviors. On the other hand, children have been shown to present more social withdrawal and
if we only focus on the cumulative impact of ACEs, these adverse limited peer interactions, and more internalizing problems than
experiences were not predictive of altruistic behaviors, as if an physically abused children (Hildyard & Wolfe, 2002; Hoffman-
undifferentiated global experience of adverse situations was not Plotkin & Twentyman, 1984).
related to the absence of positive actions for the benefit of others. As a summary, we can assume that different socio-emotional
Even the group with 4 or more ACEs presented the same mean for and cognitive impairments take place due to these adverse
altruistic behaviors as the other groups (0 ACEs and 1-3 ACEs). experiences. In physical abuse, the construction of a hostile
The second hypothesis on differential contributions of ACE mental scheme (deviant behavior) appears to be the key factor.
subtypes to the adoption of deviant and altruistic behaviors provided Meanwhile, in children whose needs have been systematically
the following results. Physical abuse was the main significant ignored, the absence of a mental scheme of other’s needs is the
predictor of deviant behaviors, not only in the previous year of central point. Furthermore, although it was not an objective
the young adult’s life, but also for their entire life. In contrast, of this study, some comments are worth to be made about the
household substance abuse was only a significant predictor when variable gender in relation to early adverse situations. First, ACEs
deviant behaviors were assessed over their entire life. Apart from were more predominant in women than in men, which supports
this, and contrary to the absence of an ACE cumulative effect on previous studies (Basto-Pereira, Miranda, Ribeiro, & Maia, 2016;
altruism, emotional neglect was the only differential ACE that Dube et al., 2003). Secondly, gender was a significant variable in
predicted the lack of altruism. This result undoubtedly reinforces all the predictive models analysed. However, while being a man
the need to study both types of impact of ACEs, cumulative and suffering different ACEs was predictive of deviant behaviors,
differential, to provide a more realistic overview of the situation, only being a woman was a good predictor of altruistic behaviors.
as suggested by Agnew (2001). These results are coherent with previous research showing the
There therefore seems to be a differential effect depending on highest association of male gender to externalizing or disruptive
the type of adverse experience. Consistent with previous studies behaviours as well as to violations of criminal law (Godinet, Li, &
(Basto-Pereira et al., 2016; Braga et al., 2018), our data indicated Berg, 2014; Kroneman, Loeber, & Hipwell, 2004).
that physical abuse appeared as the most consistent predictor of Despite these results, this study is not without some limitations.
deviant behaviors. In fact, physically abused children have more All the variables in this study were measured by self-reported
externalizing problems in childhood compared to neglected questionnaires, with a retrospective design. This method may
children, including increased noncompliance and aggression involve some difficulties with remembering events that happened
towards adults and other children (Hildyard & Wolfe, 2002; during childhood. However, unlike previous studies (Dube et
Hoffman-Plotkin & Twentyman, 1984). These results could be al., 2013), the participants in this study are younger (18-20 years
due to learning mechanisms such as modelling and differential old), and consequently they can easily recall more recent events.
reinforcement. Children who have been victims of violence may Moreover, previous studies with young adults have already shown
imitate this behavior, particularly if they perceive that such violence good reliability for retrospective reports of Adverse Childhood
results in rewards, such as compliance to one’s wishes (Akers, Experiences (Pinto et al., 2014). Second, the ACE questionnaire
2009; Braga et al., 2017). Consequently, from a developmental does not account for the intensity, frequency, duration or on some
point of view, it is logical and consistent to think that children occasions, the specific perpetrator of each negative experience.
who have experienced physical abuse and consequently present Future studies must focus in depth on these parameters, which surely
externalizing problems in middle childhood (Hildyard & Wolfe, make a difference on the impact of the negative experience.
2002; Margolin & Gordis, 2000), continue to adopt the same type The cumulative effect and some specific dimensions of ACEs
of risk strategies with deviant behaviors in emerging adulthood. (even in the absence of this cumulative effect) had a relationship
This externalizing trajectory would also be consistent with the with the risk of presenting deviant behaviors and inhibiting
result, indicating that lifelong deviant behavior was also predicted the expression of altruistic behaviors. The results were highly
by physical abuse. In this trajectory, the older the youth, the more predictive of deviant or violent behavior when the child had
severe type of transgressive acts that may be adopted, especially if suffered from physical abuse, and a lack of altruistic behaviour
they are not encouraged to abandon these maladaptive strategies when emotionally neglected. The results of this study therefore
and to adopt positive ones. support the implementation of secondary and tertiary prevention
The differential predictive power of emotional neglect on strategies, as advocated by Felitti et al., (1998). Due to the age
altruistic behavior, is also intuitive, assuming that children who period chosen in this study, preventing the early adoption of
have never been loved by significant relatives, who have not ever deviant behaviors as chronic coping mechanisms is still possible.
felt special or important within a protective context, have also For those already using these maladaptive mechanisms, helping
failed to learn the ability to love or care about others. According to to promote change (desistance) may act as tertiary prevention. In
the Integrated Cognitive Theory of Antisocial Potential mentioned both cases, networking and specialized training of all the agents
above, being exposed to adverse situations during childhood or involved in identifying ACEs and deviant behaviors (schools, public
adolescence, may weaken the social bond that should be established health services, the juvenile justice system), would be incredibly
under normal conditions (Farrington, 2017; Sampson & Laub, valuable. Likewise, implementing strategies for neglected children
2003). Similarly, some authors also consider these experiences of to be able to develop skills such as empathy or understanding the
neglect as a threat to the overall development of children’s self, emotions of others would be very useful in fostering altruistic
as they do not receive any attention or care, meaning no valuable behaviors among children who have not learned how to do this
contributions to the process of self-construction (Toth, Cicchetti, earlier in life.

38
 The effect of adverse childhood experiences on deviant and altruistic behavior during emerging adulthood

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