The Conduction Rate Equation

Fourier’s law is phenomenological; that is, it is developed from observed phenomena rather than being derived from first
principles.

Consider the steady-state conduction experiment of Figure 1 shown below. A cylindrical rod of known material is insulated
on its lateral surface, while its end faces are maintained at different temperatures, with T1 > T2.

The temperature difference causes conduction heat transfer in the positive x-direction. We can measure the heat transfer rate
qx, and we seek to determine how qx depends on the following variables: ∆T, the temperature difference; ∆x, the rod length;
and A, the cross-sectional area.

Figure 1: Steady-state heat conduction

In changing the material (e.g., from a metal to a plastic), value of 𝑞𝑞𝑥𝑥 would be smaller for the plastic than for the metal.
This suggests that the proportionality may be converted to an equality by introducing a coefficient that is a measure of
the material behavior.

where k, the thermal conductivity (W/m ⋅ K), is an important property of the material. Evaluating
this expression in the limit as ∆𝑥𝑥 → 0, the heat rate

……………..1

or for the heat flux

…………….. 2

the minus sign is necessary because heat is always transferred in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
Fourier’s law, as written in Equation 2, implies that the heat flux is a directional quantity. In particular, the direction of 𝑞𝑞𝑥𝑥′′
is normal to the cross-sectional area A. Or, more generally, the direction of heat flow will always be normal to a surface of
constant temperature, called an isothermal surface.

Figure 2 illustrates the direction of heat flow 𝑞𝑞𝑥𝑥′′ in a plane wall for which the temperature gradient dT/dx is negative. From
Equation 2, it follows that qx′′ is positive. Note that the isothermal surfaces are planes normal to the x-direction.
Recognizing that the heat flux is a vector quantity, a more general statement of the conduction rate equation (Fourier’s
law) can be written as follows:

…………….. 3

where ∇ is the three-dimensional del operator, i, j, and k are the unit vectors in the x, y, and
z directions, and T(x, y, z) is the scalar temperature field.

Figure 2: The relationship between coordinate system, heat flow direction, and temperature gradient in one
dimension.
heat flux vector can be resolved into components such that, in Cartesian coordinates, the general
expression for 𝑞𝑞 ′′ is
…………….. 4

from Equation 3, it follows that

…………….. 5
The Heat Diffusion Equation
Consider a homogeneous medium within which there is no bulk motion (advection) and the temperature distribution
T(x, y, z) is expressed in Cartesian coordinates. The medium is assumed to be incompressible, that is, its density can be
treated as constant.

Consider an infinitesimally small (differential) control volume, dx ⋅ dy ⋅ dz, as shown in Figure. Only thermal forms of
energy need be considered. Specifically, if there are temperature gradients, conduction heat transfer will occur across
each of the control surfaces.

The conduction heat rates perpendicular to each of the control surfaces at the x-, y-, and z-coordinate locations are
indicated by the terms qx, qy, and qz, respectively. The conduction heat rates at the opposite surfaces can then be
expressed as a Taylor series expansion, where, neglecting higher-order terms,

……………..1

Figure: Differential control volume, dx dy dz, for conduction analysis in Cartesian coordinates.
Within the medium there may also be an energy source term associated with the rate of
thermal energy generation. This term is represented as ……………..2

where 𝑞𝑞̇ is the rate at which energy is generated per unit volume of the medium (W/m3). In addition, changes may
occur in the amount of the internal thermal energy stored by the material in the control volume. If the material is not
experiencing a change in phase, latent energy effects are not pertinent, and the energy storage term reduces to the
rate of change of sensible energy:

……………..3

On a rate basis, the general form of the conservation of energy requirement is

……………..4

Hence, recognizing that the conduction rates constitute the energy inflow Ein and outflow
Eout, and substituting Equations 2 and 3, we obtain

……………..5
Substituting from Equations 1, it follows that

……………..6

The conduction heat rates in an isotropic material may be evaluated from Fourier’s law,

……………..7

Substituting expressions of Eq. 7 into Eq. 6 and simplifying

 ……………..8
Fourier-Biot equation

where 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑘𝑘/𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 is the thermal diffusivity. Under steady-state conditions, there can be no change in the amount of
energy storage; hence Equation 8 reduces to

Moreover, if the heat transfer is one-dimensional (e.g., in the x-direction) and there is no energy generation, Equation
reduces to
General Heat Diffusion Equation (Vector Form)
• Applicable to all coordinate systems
• ∇ · (𝑘𝑘∇𝑇𝑇) + 𝑞𝑞̇ = 𝜌𝜌 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
• Includes conduction, heat generation and energy
storage

Laplace Equation :

∇2 𝑇𝑇 = 0
• Constant 𝑘𝑘
• Valid for steady conduction
• No internal heat source
Cylindrical Coordinates

Figure: Differential control volume, dr ⋅ r dφ ⋅ dz, for conduction analysis in cylindrical coordinates (r, φ, z).
When the del operator ∇ is expressed in cylindrical coordinates, with i, j, and k representing the unit vectors in the r, φ , and z directions,
the general form of the heat flux vector and hence of Fourier’s law is

Where

are heat flux components in the radial, circumferential, and axial directions, respectively. Applying an energy balance to the
differential control volume, the following general form of the heat equation is obtained:
 Cylindrical Coordinate System
• Temperature field: T = T(r, φ, z, t)
• Coordinate relations:
• x = r cosφ, y = r sinφ, z = z
• Used for cylinders, pipes and
rods

Laplacian of Temperature – Cylindrical Coordinates

∇²T = ∂²T/∂r² + (1/r)∂T/∂r+ (1/r²)∂²T/∂φ² + ∂²T/∂z²
Spherical Coordinates
In spherical coordinates, with i, j, and k representing the unit vectors in the r, θ, and φ directions, the
general form of the heat flux vector and Fourier’s
law is

where

are heat flux components in the radial, polar, and azimuthal

directions, respectively. Applying an energy balance to the
differential control volume, the following general form of the heat
equation is obtained:

Figure: Differential control volume, dr ⋅ r sinθ dφ ⋅ r dθ , for

conduction analysis in spherical coordinates (r, φ, θ ).
Spherical Coordinate System
• Temperature field: T = T(r, θ, φ, t)
• Coordinate relations:
• x = r sinθ cosφ
• y = r sinθ sinφ
• z = r cosθ
• Used for spheres and balls

Laplacian of Temperature – Spherical Coordinates

∇²T = (1/r²)∂/∂r(r²∂T/∂r)+ (1/r²sinθ)∂/∂θ(sinθ ∂T/∂θ)+ (1/r²sin²θ)∂²T/∂φ²

Thermal Conductivity:

For example, 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 =4.18 kJ/kg.°C for water and 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 = 0.45 kJ/kg⋅°C for iron at room
temperature, which indicates that water can store almost 10 times the energy that
iron can per unit mass. Likewise, the thermal conductivity k is a measure of a
material’s ability to conduct heat.

For example,
k = 0.607 W/m⋅K for water and k = 80.2 W/m⋅K for iron at room temperature,
which indicates that iron conducts heat more than 100 times faster than water

The thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as the rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness of the material per unit area per unit temperature
difference. The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of the ability of
the material to conduct heat. A high value for thermal conductivity indicates that
the material is a good heat conductor, and a low value indicates that the material
is a poor heat conductor or insulator.
Simple experiment to measure thermal conductivity
of a material
• Transport properties: k, μ
• Thermodynamic properties: ρ, cₚ
• (Together called thermo-physical properties)

Volumetric Heat Capacity

• ρ cₚ
• Represents the energy storage capability of a material
• Important in transient heat transfer

Thermal Diffusivity
• α = k / (ρ cₚ)
• Units: m²/s
• Indicates rate of heat conduction relative to heat storage
Physical Significance of Thermal Diffusivity
• Governs propagation of heat during transient conditions
• Higher α → faster temperature response
• Lower α → slower heat penetration

Example: Semi-Infinite Medium

• Medium initially at uniform temperature T₀ = 100°C
• At t = 0, surface temperature suddenly reduced to 0°C
• Surface temperature maintained constant thereafter

Temperature varies with position and time

• Time to reach 50°C at 30 cm from the surface depends on α

• Larger α → faster cooling

• Silver: 170 ×10⁻⁶ m²/s → 9.5 min
• Copper: 103 ×10⁻⁶ m²/s → 16.5
min
Summary: Thermal diffusivity measures how quickly a • Steel: 12.9 ×10⁻⁶ m²/s → 2.2 h
material responds to temperature changes during transient
heat transfer. • Glass: 0.59 ×10⁻⁶ m²/s → 2 days
Plane Wall
The temperature distribution in the wall can be determined by solving the heat equation with the proper
boundary conditions. For steady-state conditions with no distributed source or sink of energy within the
wall, the appropriate form of the heat equation is Equation

for one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a plane wall with no heat generation, the heat flux is a constant,
independent of x.
 Plane Wall
If the thermal conductivity of the wall material is assumed to
be constant, the equation may be integrated twice to obtain
the general solution

Boundary conditions at x = 0 and x = L

Substituting into the general solution, the temperature distribution is then