Bohr’s Model of the Atom
Niels Bohr improved Rutherford’s model by introducing quantum theory.
Postulates of Bohr’s model are:
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed circular orbits called energy levels.
Each orbit has a definite energy.
Electrons do not lose energy while moving in these permitted orbits.
Energy is absorbed or emitted only when an electron jumps from one orbit to another.
Merits:
Successfully explained the hydrogen atomic spectrum.
Explained the stability of the atom.
Limitations:
Applicable only to hydrogen and hydrogen-like atoms.
Bohr’s model was not able to explain the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
It failed to explain the Stark effect (effect of electric field on the spectra of atoms).
It is also failed to explain the Zeeman Effect (effect of magnetic field on the spectra of
atoms)
Other Models of the Atom
Several other models were proposed to explain atomic structure, including:
Sommerfeld’s atomic model – introduced elliptical orbits.
Quantum mechanical model – explains atomic structure using wave mechanics and
probability.
Modern atomic theory – considers electrons as wave-particle dual entities and explains
atomic behavior more accurately.
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
The Quantum Mechanical Model is the most modern and accurate model of the atom. It is
based on quantum theory and explains the behavior of electrons using both wave and particle
nature.
This model was developed using the ideas of de Broglie, Heisenberg, and Schrödinger.
Main Features of the Quantum Mechanical Model
1. Dual Nature of Electron
According to de Broglie, electrons show both particle and wave nature.
2. Uncertainty Principle
Heisenberg stated that it is not possible to determine both the exact position and exact
momentum of an electron at the same time.
3. Wave Equation
Schrödinger developed a wave equation that describes the probability of finding an
electron in a particular region around the nucleus.
4. Orbitals Instead of Orbits
In this model, electrons do not move in fixed circular paths. Instead, they are present in
regions of space called atomic orbitals.
5. Probability Concept
An orbital represents the probable location of an electron, not a definite path.
Atomic Orbitals
Atomic orbitals are regions around the nucleus where the probability of finding an
electron is maximum.
Orbitals are characterized by quantum numbers.
Common types of orbitals are s, p, d, and f.
Orbital Shape
s Spherical
p Dumbbell-shaped
d Double dumbbell
f Complex shape
1. s- Orbital
Shape: Spherical
Found around the nucleus
Present in every shell (1s, 2s, 3s, …)
Probability of finding the electron is the same in all directions
2. p-Orbital
Shape: Dumbbell-shaped
Three orientations: pₓ, pᵧ, p𝓏
Appear from the second shell onwards
Directional in nature
3. d-Orbital
Shape: Double dumbbell or cloverleaf
Five orbital’s: dₓᵧ, dᵧ𝓏, dₓ𝓏, dₓ²₋ᵧ², d𝓏²
Present from the third shell onwards
Important for transition metals
1. f-Orbitals
Shape: Very complex
Seven f-orbitals
Present from the fourth shell onwards
Important for inner transition elements (lanthanides and actinides)
Merits of the Quantum Mechanical Model
1. Explains the structure of atoms accurately.
2. Describes atomic spectra of multi-electron atoms.
3. Explains the electronic configuration of elements.
4. Forms the basis for understanding chemical bonding.
Limitations
1. Mathematical treatment is complex.
2. Does not give the exact position of electrons, only probability.
Engineering Importance
Helps in understanding semiconductors and electronic materials
Basis of spectroscopy techniques
Explains bonding and reactivity
Important in nanotechnology and material science