Chapter Three: Ethical Decision Making and
Moral Judgments (Revised & Complete)
3.1 Chapter Introduction
This chapter examines ethical decision-making and moral judgments,
emphasizing that morality guides human behavior, resolves social conflicts,
and promotes peaceful coexistence. Importantly, ethics does not simply tell
people what to do; rather, it provides tools for thinking critically about
complex and often unclear moral problems.
3.2 Chapter Objectives
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: - Identify the moral
foundations of ethical standards. - Explain how ethical standards apply to
real-life situations. - Distinguish between good and bad moral reasoning. -
Understand how sound ethical decisions are made. - Appreciate the
importance of morality for individuals and society.
3.3 How Can We Make Ethical Decisions and Actions?
Ethical decisions depend on how we understand concepts such as good and
bad, right and wrong. One of the central tasks of ethics is to clarify these
ideas and apply them to real-life situations.
Kinds of Good and Bad
Instrumental Good: Things valued for what they lead to (e.g.,
education leading to employment).
Intrinsic Good: Things valued for their own sake (e.g., happiness,
truth, dignity).
Instrumental Bad: Things that are bad because of their
consequences.
Intrinsic Bad: Things that are bad in themselves.
Some practices can be both instrumentally and intrinsically bad, such as
corruption, female genital mutilation, early marriage, poverty, ignorance,
murder, and kidnapping. These practices are unethical and should be
eradicated.
Key Tasks of Ethical Reasoning
Ethics has two major tasks: 1. To critically analyze and evaluate the values
we hold and the obligations we claim toward others. 2. To assess the
adequacy of the reasons we give for our actions by examining evidence and
logical consistency.
Ethical problems are often complex and unclear. Unlike scientific problems,
they do not always have definite solutions. Therefore, the purpose of ethics
is not to impose answers, but to offer rational tools for dealing with moral
uncertainty.
3.3.1 Ethical Principles and Values of Moral Judgments
Ethical reasoning involves examining moral values and principles, especially
in difficult situations such as euthanasia, capital punishment, or end-of-life
care. While people often rely on everyday moral rules (“rules of thumb”),
complex ethical dilemmas require deeper theoretical frameworks.
Philosophers attempt to develop principles that can guide moral reasoning
across societies.
3.3.2 Moral Intuitions and Critical Reasoning
Human beings possess moral intuitions, often rooted in empathy. Empathy
allows individuals to understand the feelings of others and forms the basis of
moral sentiments. However, emotions alone are insufficient. According to
Traer (2013), moral sentiments combined with ethical reasoning form a
person’s conscience. Therefore, conscience should be guided by both
emotion and reason.
[Link] Rationalization
Rationalization occurs when individuals present seemingly logical or moral
reasons to conceal their true motives. In such cases, people offer
rationalizations instead of genuine reasons. For example, a landowner may
claim to build a recycling plant to create jobs, while the real motive is
personal profit.
[Link] Types of Reasoning
Reasoning by Analogy: Comparing similar cases to clarify ethical
arguments, provided the similarities outweigh the differences.
Deductive Reasoning: Applying general moral principles to specific
situations (e.g., all humans have rights; you are human; therefore, you
have rights).
Inductive Reasoning: Using evidence to support moral claims or
hypotheses, where stronger evidence increases reliability.
[Link] Ethics and Religious Faith
For many people, morality is closely linked to religious faith, and moral rules
are seen as divine commands. Some philosophers argue that moral
principles should be justified through rational reflection rather than faith
alone. However, religious moral teachings remain influential in shaping
public morality and encouraging higher moral standards. Whether faith-
based arguments should be accepted in ethical reasoning requires careful
consideration.
[Link] Testing Moral Arguments
Moral arguments should be tested using three main criteria: - Factual
Accuracy: Moral claims must be based on correct facts. As David Hume
emphasized, one should not derive an ‘ought’ from an ‘is’. - Consistency:
Moral arguments must avoid contradictions. - Good Will: Arguments should
demonstrate sincerity and genuine moral concern.
3.3.3 Thinking Ethically: A Framework for Moral Decision
Making
Ethical decision-making requires both factual understanding and value-based
reasoning. Although facts alone cannot determine what ought to be done,
failing to establish the facts often leads to unnecessary moral disagreement.
Five Approaches to Ethical Decision Making
[Link] Fairness and Justice Approach
Associated with Aristotle, this approach emphasizes treating equals equally
and unequals unequally. Favoritism and discrimination are considered unjust.
[Link] Common Good Approach
This approach focuses on the welfare of society as a whole. It emphasizes
shared values, cooperation, and social systems that benefit all members of
the community.
[Link] Rights Approach
Influenced by Kantian ethics, this approach stresses respect for human
dignity and autonomy. Fundamental rights include the right to truth, privacy,
freedom from injury, and the right to enter agreements.
[Link] Utilitarian Approach
This approach evaluates actions based on their consequences, aiming to
achieve the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
[Link] Virtue Approach
Virtue ethics emphasizes moral character rather than specific actions. It
promotes virtues such as honesty, courage, integrity, and compassion,
encouraging individuals to develop good character through practice.
3.4 Why Should We Be Moral?
There are several reasons for moral behavior: - Morality maintains social
order and resolves conflicts. - It builds trust and cooperation. - It promotes
personal integrity and self-respect. - It supports justice, fairness, and long-
term societal well-being.
3.5 Conclusion
Ethical decision-making is essential for both individual and societal well-
being. Ethics does not provide simple answers but offers frameworks and
tools for critical moral reasoning. By combining empathy, reason, and ethical
principles, individuals can better navigate complex moral dilemmas and
contribute to a just and harmonious society.