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Vectors

2.1 Vectors and their Properties

2.1.1 Introduction to Vectors

Definition 1.

A scalar is a number which has no direction. Examples of scalar quantities include voltage
V , resistance R and temperature T .

A vector is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction. Examples include the velocity
v of an object, the force F on an object, and electric and magnetic fields E and B in space.

Notice that vector quantities are denoted by underlining, using boldface or with an arrow above:
a or a or a⃗ .
We usually denote vectors using the first convention, by underlining them.

The magnitude or length of a vector a is denoted |a|, which is a non-negative real number (a
non-negative scalar).

To be equal, two vectors must have both the same magnitude and the same direction. Notice
that two vectors can be equal even if they start at different points in space.

1
Unit 2. Vectors 2

The vectors a and b are equal in both magnitude The vectors a and b have the same magnitude
and direction. (length), |a| = |b|, but different directions.

The vectors a and b have different magnitudes The vectors a and b have the same magnitude,
(lengths), but the same direction. but opposite directions, denoted b = −a.

Definition 2.

A direction vector is a vector which starts anywhere in space.

A position vector is a vector which starts at the origin of the coordinate system you set up
in space, i.e. a position vector is the special case of a direction vector starting at the origin.

A position vector is often used to describe the position of a point in space, situated at the end
of the vector.

For instance, in Mechanics, we may describe the position of the centre of mass of an object in
three-dimensional space by the vector r from the origin of the coordinate system to the centre
of mass.

2.1.2 Properties of Vectors

Components of a vector

Consider any vector a in three-dimensional space. We will place this vector with its tail at the
origin (so that it is a position vector) for convenience. The components of the vector a, here
labelled ax , ay and az , do not depend on the location of this vector in space.

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Unit 2. Vectors 3

Definition 3. We can project the vector a onto the x, y and z-axes to obtain the projections
ax , ay and az (real numbers) which are called the components of the vector a. We write
 
ax
a = ay  .

az

Notice that here we use column vector notation. We could also write a row vector


ax ay az

which is the transpose of a, denoted aT . You will learn more about row and column vectors,
and transposing vectors and matrices when you study matrices in later Mathematics modules.

Definition 4. The zero vector is a vector with components all zero

 
0
0 = 0

0

which is just a point in space with zero length.

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Unit 2. Vectors 4

Magnitude of a Vector

The magnitude of the vector a can be determined in terms of its components, ax , ay and az , by
applying an extension of Pythagoras’ rule to three dimensions, as shown in the sketch below.

The hypotenuse OB of the right-angled triangle COB on the xy -plane has length
q
OB⃗ = (ax )2 + (ay )2

by Pythagorus’s theorem in two dimensions. This is the length of the vector OB

⃗ from O to B.

Hence, the hypotenuse OA of the right-angled triangle AOB has length

q q
2
⃗
OA = OB + (az ) = (ax )2 + (ay )2 + (az )2
⃗ 2

which is the length of the vector a = OA

⃗ from O to A.

Proposition 1. The magnitude or length of the vector a is

q
| a | = (ax )2 + (ay )2 + (az )2

in terms of its components ax , ay and az .

Note. For any vector a in three-dimensional space,

• | a | ≥ 0 since the length of a vector must be non-negative.
• | a | = 0 ⇐⇒ a = 0 since the only vector of length 0 is the zero vector.


1
Example 1. The magnitude of the vector a =  2  is
−2
p √ √
| a | = (1)2 + (2)2 + (−2)2 = 1 + 4 + 4 = 9 = 3.

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Unit 2. Vectors 5

Basis Vectors

Definition 5. We define
     
1 0 0
î = 0 ,
 ĵ = 1 ,
 k̂ = 0 ,

0 0 1

which are the three standard basis vectors in three-dimensional space.

These vectors î , ĵ and k̂ have length 1 and are depicted below. They point along the three x,
y and z coordinate axes in three-dimensional space.

These are called basis vectors because we shall find that any vector a in three-dimensional space,
with components ax , ay and az , can be expanded in terms of these three vectors
       
ax 1 0 0
a =  ay
 = ax  0 + ay  1  + az 0 = ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂.

az 0 0 1

To do this, we need to understand the concepts of vector addition and the multiplication of a
vector by a scalar which we discuss in the next section.

Example 2. We can expand

       
1 1 0 0
a =  2  = 0 + 2 1 − 2 0 = î + 2 ĵ − 2 k̂
−2 0 0 1

in terms of this standard basis.

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Unit 2. Vectors 6

2.2 Algebra of Vectors

2.2.1 Addition of Vectors

Definition 6. The sum of two vectors a and b is

     
ax bx ax + bx
a + b = ay  + by  = ay + by 
az bz az + bz

where we add the x, y and z-components.

The geometric interpretation of vector addition is shown below.

Placing the vector b tail-to-head with a, the vector a + b is the resultant vector from the tail
(start) of a to the head (end) of b.
  
1 4
Example 3. The sum of the vectors a = −2 and b =
   0  is
3 −2
       
1 4 1+4 5
a + b = −2 +  0  = −2 + 0 = −2 .
3 −2 3−2 1

2.2.2 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

Definition 7. Consider a scalar s and a vector a. Then

   
ax s ax
s a = s ay = s ay 
  
az s az

where each component is multiplied by the number s.

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Unit 2. Vectors 7

Note. Multiplying a vector a by s = −1 gives a vector

 
−ax
−a = −ay 
−az
in the opposite direction to a, but with the same magnitude
p p
| −a | = (−ax )2 + (−ay )2 + (−az )2 = (ax )2 + (ay )2 + (az )2 = | a |.

The geometric interpretation of multiplying a vector by a scalar is shown below.

Example 4.    
2 10
5 −1 = −5 .
4 20

Note. Consider the scalars s and t, and vectors a and b. Then, combining the definitions of
the multiplication of a vector by a scalar and vector addition,
     
ax bx s ax + t b x
s a + t b = s ay  + t by  = s ay + t by  .
az bz s az + t b z

Example 5.          
1 1 2 3 5
2 1 +3 3
    = 2 +
   9  = 11  .

3 −4 6 −12 −6

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Unit 2. Vectors 8

Subtracting Vectors

Definition 8. Consider two vectors a and b. Then

     
ax −bx ax − bx
a − b = a + (−b ) = ay  + −by  = ay − by 
az −bz az − bz

where we subtract the x, y and z-components, respectively.

Notice that the difference a − b is the same as the sum of a with the opposite vector −b. We
can thus deduce a geometric interpretation from that of vector addition as shown in the next
sketch.

The vectors a and b form a parallelograph, as shown, with sides these vectors. The vector sum
a + b is one diagonal and the vector difference a − b is another diagonal, as shown.

Notice that a − b runs from the head (end) of b to the head (end) of a when both vectors are
placed tail-to-tail.

This can be useful in Mechanics to construct the relative position vector between two objects
at positions A and B in space, with position vectors a and b (which start at the origin 0 as they
are position vectors). The relative position vector from B to A is the vector a − b.

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Unit 2. Vectors 9

Example 6. The vector from the point (1, 0, −2) to the point (3, 4, 1) in three-dimensional
space is      
3 1 2
4 −  0  = 4 .
1 −2 3

Expanding Vectors in terms of Components

Let us return to expanding a vector a in three-dimensional space in terms of its components

multiplying the three standard basis vectors
       
ax 1 0 0
a =  ay
 = ax  0  + ay  1 + az 0 = ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂

az 0 0 1

as mentioned previously. We see the geometric interpretation shown in the examples below.

Example 7.      
2 1 0
3 = 2 0 + 3 1 = 2 î + 3 ĵ
0 0 0

Example 8.        
5 1 0 0
−1 = 5 0 − 1 + 7 0 = 5 î − ĵ + 7 k̂
7 0 0 1

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Unit 2. Vectors 10

Unit Vectors

Definition 9. A unit vector is a vector of magnitude 1, i.e. a vector of unit length.

We have already defined the standard basis î , ĵ and k̂ of three-dimensional space, which are all
unit vectors.

 
ax
Definition 10. Consider any non-zero vector a =  ay
 ̸= 0.
az

The unit vector â in the direction of a is

 
ax
a 1 1 ay  .
â = = a = p
|a| |a| (ax )2 + (ay )2 + (az )2 a
z

Note. Rescaling the vector a by 1

|a| ensures that the magnitude of â is 1:

1
| â | = | a | = 1.
|a|

We denote unit vectors with a ‘hat’ above the vector, so here â.

 
1
Example 9. The unit vector in the direction of a =  2  is
−2
    1 
1 1 3
1  2  = 1  2  =  2 .
â = p 3
(1)2 + (2)2 + (−2)2 −2 3
−2 − 32

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Unit 2. Vectors 11

 
−4
Example 10. The unit vector in the direction of b =  0  is
1

− √417
    
−4 −4
1  0  = √1  0  =  0  .
b̂ = p
(−4)2 + (0)2 + (1)2 1 17 1 √1
17

Exercise 1. Let

a = 2 î + 3 ĵ − k̂, b = î − 5 ĵ + 4k̂, c = −2î + 7k̂.

Find the following vectors:

(a) 2a + 3b
(b) 5a − 2c
(c) a + b + c
as expansions over the standard basis.

Exercise 2. Find the magnitude | a | and the unit vector â for each of the following vectors:
   
−2 1
(a) a =  3  (b) a = −3

0 −4
with â written as an expansion over the standard basis.

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Unit 2. Vectors 12

2.3 Scalar and Vector Products

Consider two vectors a and b in three-dimensional space.

Note. The product a b is not defined.

There are two types of products of these vectors in three dimensions which are defined: the
scalar product (or dot product) a · b which outputs a scalar (number), and the vector product
(or cross product) a × b which outputs a vector. We shall now study each in turn.

2.3.1 The Dot Product or Scalar Product

Definition of the Dot Product

Consider two vectors a and b in three dimensions, placed tail-to-tail.

The dot product or scalar product is a product of vectors which produces a scalar (a number),
as we define next.

Definition 11. The dot product of the vectors a and b is defined as

a · b = | a | | b | cos θ

where θ is the angle between a and b when placed tail-to-tail, with 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

Note. Since −1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1, we note that

−| a | | b | ≤ a · b ≤ | a | | b |.

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Unit 2. Vectors 13

Properties of the Dot Product

Let us discuss some properties of the dot product.

1 a·b =b·a
○ (the dot product is commutative).

2 a · b is a scalar (a number).
○

3 a · a = | a |2 .
○

4 a · b = 0 ⇐⇒ a = 0 or b = 0 or θ =
○ π
2 (so a and b are perpendicular).

5 The dot product is distributive over vector addition

○

a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c) and (a + b) · c = (a · c) + (a · c) .

Proof.
1 and ○
The proof of properties ○ 2 follows immediately from the definition of the dot product.
The proof of property ○3 also follows almost immediately

a · a = | a | | a | cos 0 = | a |2

since the angle between a vector a and itself is θ = 0, and cos 0 = 1.

A reminder of the graph of y = cos x is sketched below. Please note that further revision
material on trigonometric graphs and identities is available in Unit 3 Functions.

4 is
The proof of property ○

a · b = 0 ⇐⇒ | a | | b | cos θ = 0
⇐⇒ | a | = 0 or | b | = 0 or cos θ = 0
π
⇐⇒ a = 0 or b = 0 or θ = .
2
If a · b = 0, then we say the vectors a and b are orthogonal vectors, meaning that either one of
the vectors is the zero vector (a = 0 or b = 0) or the vectors are perpendicular (θ = π2 ).

5 is beyond the scope of the module.

The proof of property ○

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Unit 2. Vectors 14

Dot Product of the Standard Basis Vectors

Consider the unit vectors î , ĵ and k̂. Then

î · î = 1 ĵ · ĵ = 1 k̂ · k̂ = 1
î · ĵ = ĵ · î = 0 k̂ · î = î · k̂ = 0 ĵ · k̂ = k̂ · ĵ = 0

since î , ĵ and k̂ are unit vectors (so have length 1 and thus, for example, î · î = | î | = 1) and
are perpendicular vectors.

Thus, we say that î , ĵ and k̂ forms an orthonormal basis for three-dimensional space, meaning
that distinct basis vectors are orthogonal (perpendicular) and normalised (scaled to length 1).

Alternative formula of the Dot Product

There is an equivalent definition of the dot product as shown below.

Theorem 1. Consider the vectors a and b. The dot product is

   
ax bx
a · b = ay · by  = ax bx + ay by + az bz
  
az bz

Proof.



a · b = ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂ · bx î + by ĵ + bz k̂






= ax bx î · î + ay by ĵ · ĵ + az bz k̂ · k̂ + ax by î · ĵ + ay bx ĵ · î





+ az bx k̂ · î + ax bz î · k̂ + ay bz ĵ · k̂ + az by k̂ · ĵ
= ax bx (1) + ay by (1) + az bz (1) + ax by (0) + ay bx (0)
+ az bx (0) + ax bz (0) + ay bz (0) + az by (0)
= ax bx + ay by + az bz

Example 11.
   
−1 5
 3  ·  2  = (−1)(5) + (3)(2) + (2)(−4) = −5 + 6 − 8 = −7.
2 −4

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Unit 2. Vectors 15

Example 12. The angle θ between the vectors

a = î + 2 ĵ − 2 k̂ and b = î − k̂.
can be found by equating both expressions for the dot product:
a·b
a · b = | a | | b | cos θ =⇒ cos θ = .
|a||b|
Here
a · b = (1)(1) + (2)(0) + (−1)(−2) = 1 + 0 + 2 = 3,
p √ √
| a | = (1)2 + (2)2 + (−2)2 = 1 + 4 + 4 = 9 = 3,
p √ √
| b | = (1)2 + (−1)2 = 1 + 1 = 2 .
Hence, for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π,
3 1 π
cos θ = √ = √ and thus θ= .
3 2 2 4

2.3.2 The Cross Product or Vector Product

Definition of the Cross Product

Consider two vectors a and b in three dimensions, placed tail-to-tail.

The cross product or vector product is a product of vectors which produces a vector, as we
define next.

Definition 12. The vector product of the vectors a and b is defined as the vector a × b with
direction perpendicular to both a and b (as dictated by the right-hand rule) and magnitude

| a × b | = | a | | b | sin θ

where θ is the angle between a and b when placed tail-to-tail, with 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

Note. Now −1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1 for θ real, and 0 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1 for θ ∈ [0, π] in this case. Hence
0 ≤ |a × b| ≤ |a||b|
which makes sense as | a × b | is the magnitude of the vector a × b and so non-negative.

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Unit 2. Vectors 16

Properties of the Cross Product

Let us discuss some properties of the cross product.

1 a × b = −b × a
○ (the cross product is anticommutative).
2 a × b is a vector.
○
3 a × a = 0.
○
4 a × b = 0 ⇐⇒ a = 0 or b = 0, or θ = 0 or π (so a and b are parallel or antiparallel).
○

5 The cross product is distributive over vector addition

○

a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c) and (a + b) × c = (a × c) + (a × c) .

Proof.
1 and ○
The proof of properties ○ 2 follows immediately from the definition of the dot product.
The proof of property ○3 also follows almost immediately

a × a = | a | | a | sin 0 = 0

since the angle between a vector a and itself is θ = 0, and sin 0 = 1.

A reminder of the graph of y = sin x is sketched below. Please note that further revision material
on trigonometric graphs and identities is available in Unit 3 Functions.

4 is
The proof of property ○

a × b = 0 ⇐⇒ | a | | b | sin θ = 0
⇐⇒ | a | = 0 or | b | = 0 or sin θ = 0
⇐⇒ a = 0 or b = 0, or θ = 0 or π.

If a × b = 0, thenthe vectors a and b in the same or opposite directions, i.e. parallel (θ = 0) or

anti-parallel (θ = π).

5 is beyond the scope of the module.

The proof of property ○

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Unit 2. Vectors 17

Cross Product of the Standard Basis Vectors

Consider the unit vectors î , ĵ and k̂ which are all perpendicular with length | î | = | ĵ | = | k̂ | = 1.
Thus
î × ĵ = k̂ (right-handed coordinate system) or ĵ × î = −k̂ (left-handed coordinate system)

(a) right-handed coordinate system (b) left-handed coordinate system

By convention, we always set up our coordinate system such that î × ĵ = k̂ using the right-hand
rule, i.e. we always use a right-hand coordinate system.

Thus, in a right-hand coordinate system,

î × î = 0 ĵ × ĵ = 0 k̂ × k̂ = 0
î × ĵ = k̂ ĵ × î = − k̂
k̂ × î = ĵ î × k̂ = − ĵ
ĵ × k̂ = î k̂ × ĵ = − î

Alternative formula of the Cross Product

There is an equivalent definition of the cross product as shown below.

Theorem 2. Consider the vectors a and b. The cross product is

   
ax bx
a × b = ay × by  = (ay bz − az by ) î − (ax bz − az bx ) ĵ + (ax by − ay bx ) k̂
  
az bz

Proof.



a × b = ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂ × bx î + by ĵ + bz k̂






= ax bx î × î + ay by ĵ × ĵ + az bz k̂ × k̂ + ax by î × ĵ + ay bx ĵ × î





+ az bx k̂ × î + ax bz î × k̂ + ay bz ĵ × k̂ + az by k̂ × ĵ



= ax bx (0) + ay by (0) + az bz (0) + ax by k̂ + ay bx − k̂





+ az bx ĵ + ax bz − ĵ + ay bz î + az by − î
= (ay bz − az by ) î − (ax bz − az bx ) ĵ + (ax by − ay bx ) k̂

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Unit 2. Vectors 18

Note. There is a useful way in which to remember this cross product using the notation of
determinants (which you will learn about when you study matrices in a later Mathematics
module). For now, we shall treat this as a useful mnemonic, as shown below:
   
ax bx î ĵ k̂
a × b = ay × by = ax ay az
   
az bz bx by bz
ay az a a a a
= î − x z ĵ + x y k̂
by bz bx bz bx by
= (ay bz − az by ) î − (ax bz − az bx ) ĵ + (ax by − ay bx ) k̂

Example 13.
   
5 2 î ĵ k̂
 1  × −3 = 5 1 −2 = 1 −2 î − 5 −2 ĵ + 5 1 k̂
−3 1 2 1 2 −3
−2 1 2 −3 1




= (1)(1) − (−2)(−3) î − (5)(1) − (−2)(2) ĵ + (5)(−3) − (1)(2) k̂




= 1 − 6 î − 5 + 4 ĵ + − 15 − 2 k̂
= − 5 î − 9 ĵ − 17 k̂

and thus      
5 2 −5
 1  × −3 =  −9  .
−2 1 −17

Exercise 3. Let
a = 4 î − ĵ + 3 k̂, b = î + 7 ĵ + 2k̂.
Find the dot product a · b and the cross product a × b.

Exercise 4. Let
a = î + ĵ + 4 k̂, b = î + 5 ĵ − 3 k̂.
Use the dot product a · b to find the angle θ between the two vectors a and b.
Can you use the cross product a × b to find this angle θ? Explain.

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Unit 2. Vectors 19

2.3.3 Triple Products

Scalar Triple Product

     
ax bx cx
Let a = ay , b = by  and c = cy  be vectors in three dimensions.
az bz cz

Definition 13. The scalar triple product is a · (b × c). Here

ax ay az
a · (b × c) = ax (by cz − bz cy ) − ay (bx cz − bz cx ) + az (bx cy − by cx ) = x by bz
b
cx cy cz

Proof.          
ax bx cx ax by cz − bz cy
a · (b × c) = ay  · by  × cy  = ay  · −bx cz + bz cx 
az bz cz az bx cy − by cx

= ax (by cz − bz cy ) − ay (bx cz − bz cx ) + az (bx cy − by cx )

ax ay az
by bz bx bz bx by
= ax − ay + az = x by bz
b
cy cz cx cz cx cy
cx cy cz

Let us discuss some properties of the scalar triple product.

1 a · (b × c) is a scalar (a number).
○
2 a · (b × c) = b · (c × a) = c · (a × b)
○
3 a · (b × c) = 0 ⇐⇒ a, b and c coplanar vectors (in the same plane).
○

Proof.
1 follows immediately from the definition of the scalar triple product.
The proof of property ○

2 follows from the properties of the determinant that

The proof of property ○

ax ay az bx by bz cx cy cz
bx by bz = cx cy cz = ax ay az
cx cy cz ax ay az bx by bz

by interchanging rows twice.

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Unit 2. Vectors 20

3 follows from the properties of the dot and cross products:

The proof of property ○

a · (b × c) = 0 ⇐⇒ a = 0 or b × c = 0 or a ⊥ (b × c)
⇐⇒ a = 0 or b = 0 or c = 0 or b parallel or antiparallel to c
or a coplanar with b and c

where the last condition follows from the fact that b × c is perpendicular to both b and c, so a
vector a perpendicular to b × c must be coplanar with b and c. Notice that the cases in which
b and c are parallel or antiparallel also imply that the three vectors are coplanar. Hence we can
simplify this statement to

a · (b × c) = 0 ⇐⇒ a, b and c coplanar vectors.

Consider a parallelepiped with sides a, b and c.

The volume of the parallelepiped is

V = a · (b × c)

Example 14.
     
1 0 3 1 −2 3
−2 ·  1  × 0 = 0 1 −1
3 −1 2 3 0 2




= (1) (1)(2) − (−1)(0) − (−2) (0)(2) − (−1)(3) + (3) (0)(0) − (1)(3)
= (1)(2) − (−2)(3) + (3)(−3) = 2 + 6 − 9 = −1.

The volume of a parallelepiped with sides given by the vectors

     
1 0 3
a = −2 ,
  b=  1 ,
 c = 0

3 −1 2

is therefore V = | − 1| = 1.

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Unit 2. Vectors 21

Vector Triple Products

     
ax bx cx
Let a = ay , b = by and c = cy  be vectors in three dimensions.
    
az bz cz

Definition 14. The vector triple products are (a × b) × c and a × (b × c). Here

(a × b) × c = (a · c) b − (b · c) a a × (b × c) = (a · c) b − (a · b) c

Proof. Beyond the scope of the module.

Let us discuss some properties of the vector triple products.

1 (a × b) × c and a × (b × c) are vectors.

○
2 (a × b) × c ̸= a × (b × c)
○ (the cross product is not associative)

Proof.
The proof of properties ○1 and ○ 2 follow immediately from the definition of the vector triple
products and the expressions for these above.

Exercise 5. Let

a = 2 î + 3 ĵ − k̂, b = − î + ĵ − 2 k̂, c = 3 î − ĵ.

Find the scalar triple product a·(b × c), and the two distinct vector triple products (a × b)×c
and a × (b × c).

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Unit 2. Vectors 22

Solutions to Exercises
Solution to Exercise 1
(a)



2a + 3b = 2 2 î + 3 ĵ − k̂ + 3 î − 5 ĵ + 4k̂
= (4 + 3) î + (6 − 15) ĵ + (−2 + 12) k̂ = 7 î − 9 ĵ + 10 k̂
(b)



5a − 2c = 5 2 î + 3 ĵ − k̂ − 2 −2î + 7k̂
= (10 + 4) î + 15 ĵ + (−5 − 14) k̂ = 14 î + 15 ĵ − 19 k̂
(c)




a + b + c = 2 î + 3 ĵ − k̂ + î − 5 ĵ + 4k̂ + −2î + 7k̂
= (2 + 1 − 2) î + (3 − 5) ĵ + (−1 + 4 + 7) k̂ = î − 2 ĵ + 10 k̂

Solution to Exercise 2
p √ √
(a) |a| = (−2)2 + (3)2 + (0)2 = 4 + 9 = 13
a 2 3
a = −2 î + 3 ĵ and thus â = = − √ î + √ ĵ
|a| 13 13
p √ √
(b) | a | = (1)2 + (−3)2 + (−4)2 = 1 + 9 + 16 = 26
a 1 3 4
a = î − 3 ĵ − 4 k̂ and thus â = = √ î − √ ĵ − √ k̂
|a| 26 26 26

Solution to Exercise 3 
  


4 1
a · b = 4 î − ĵ + 3 k̂ · î + 7 ĵ + 2k̂ = −1 · 7 = 4 − 7 + 6 = 3
  
3 2
   


4 1 î ĵ k̂
a × b = 4 î − ĵ + 3 k̂ × î + 7 ĵ + 2k̂ = −1 × 7 = 4 −1 3
   
3 2 1 7 2
 
−23
= (−2 − 21) î − (8 − 3) ĵ + (28 + 1) k̂ = −23 î − 5 ĵ + 29 k̂ =  −5 
29

Solution to Exercise 4

The angle θ between the vectors a = î + ĵ + 4 k̂ and b = î + 5 ĵ − 3 k̂ can be found by equating

both expressions for the dot product:
a·b
a · b = | a | | b | cos θ =⇒ cos θ = .
|a||b|
Here
a · b = (1)(1) + (1)(5) + (4)(−3) = 1 + 5 − 12 = −6,
p √ √ √
| a | = (1)2 + (1)2 + (4)2 = 1 + 1 + 16 = 18 = 3 2 ,
p √ √ √ √
| b | = (1)2 + (5)2 + (−3)2 = 1 + 25 + 9 = 35 = 5 7 .

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26

Unit 2. Vectors 23

Hence, for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π,
r
−6 2
cos θ = √ √ √ = − and thus θ ≈ 1.812 rad (or 103.83◦ ) .
3 2 5 7 35

Attempting to use the magnitude of the cross product a × b to find this angle:
√ √ √ r
|a × b| 3 2 3 11 33
| a × b | = | a | | b | sin θ =⇒ sin θ = = √ √ √ =
|a||b| 3 2 5 7 35
since
 
î ĵ k̂ −23
a × b = 1 1 4 = (−3 − 20) î − (−3 − 4) ĵ + (5 − 1) k̂ = −23 î + 7 ĵ + 4 k̂ =  7 
1 5 −3 4
and hence
p √ √ √ √ √
|a × b| = (−23)2 + (7)2 + (4)2 = 529 + 49 + 16 = 594 = 3 2 3 11 .

This gives two possible answers for the angle θ between the vectors a and b:

θ = 1.812 rad (or 103.83◦ ) or θ ≈ π − 1.812 ≈ 1.329 rad (or 76.17◦ ) ,

q
since both values give sin θ = 3335 on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. You might attempt to determine
which answer is correct using the direction of the cross product a ×b, but this is not immediately
obvious. Thus, the dot product a · b the better method of determining angles between vectors.

Solution to Exercise 5

Here
     
2 −1 3
a = 2 î + 3 ĵ − k̂ =  3  , b = − î + ĵ − 2 k̂ =  1  , c = 3 î − ĵ =  0  .
−1 −2 −1
Here
 
î ĵ k̂ −5
a × b = 2 3 −1 = (−6 + 1) î − (−4 − 1) ĵ + (2 + 3) k̂ = −5 î + 5 ĵ + 5 k̂ =  5
−1 1 −2 5
and
 
î ĵ k̂ −1
b × c = −1 1 −2 = (−1 − 0) î − (1 + 6) ĵ + (0 − 3) k̂ = − î − 7 ĵ − 3 k̂ = −7 .

3 0 −1 −3
Hence the scalar triple product is
   
2 −1
a · (b × c) =  3 · −7 = −2 − 21 + 3 = −20 .
 
−1 −3

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26

Unit 2. Vectors 24

The vector triple products are

   
−5 3 î ĵ k̂
(a × b) × c =  5  ×  0  = −5 5 5 = (−5 − 0) î − (5 − 15) ĵ + (0 − 15) k̂
5 −1 3 0 −1
 
−5
= −5 î + 10 ĵ − 15 k̂ =  10 
−15

and
   
2 −1 î ĵ k̂
a × (b × c) =  3  × −7 = 2 3 −1 = (−9 − 7) î − (−6 − 1) ĵ + (−14 + 3) k̂
−1 −3 −1 −7 −3
 
−16
= −16 î + 7 ĵ − 11 k̂ =  7  .
−11

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26