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Unit 4
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Dierentiation and Series

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4.1 Introduction to Series

This section introduces how functions and numerical constants can be expressed using series,

which are ordered sums of terms that follow a specic pattern or rule.

For example, a simple series:

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +


+ n
illustrates the idea of summing over a range of values.

Many important mathematical constants, such as  and e, can be expressed as innite series.

In the same way, many functions in mathematics and physics can also be represented as series.

These representations are not just theoretical; they are powerful tools for solving equations,

computing integrals, and approximating functions.

When you use a calculator to evaluate functions like sin(x ) or e x , the result is usually computed
using a truncated series approximation. For example, one of the most important functions in
x
mathematics is the exponential function e . It can be written as an innite series:

2 3 4
ex = 1 + x + x2 + x6 + 24
x
+

This means that we can estimate the value of ex by summing only a few terms of this series.

4.1.1 Sigma notation

To write long sums more compactly, we use sigma notation, which is based on the Greek letter
, meaning sum. For example, instead of writing:

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +


+ n;
1
Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 2

we can write:
n
X
k;
k =1

which instructs us to sum the values of k from 1 to n. More generally, sigma notation takes

the form:
b
)
X
(expression in k ;
k =a

which represents:

(expression evaluated at k = a) + (at k = a + 1) +


+ (at k = b):

The variable k is called the index of summation, and it can be replaced with any letter. The

limits a and b dene the starting and ending values for the index, and the expression determines

what is being added at each step.

Example 1. Expand and evaluate

4
X
k:
k =1

Solution:
4
= 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10:
X
k
k =1

Example 2. Expand and evaluate

5
(2i + 1):
X

i =1

Solution:

(2
1 + 1) + (2
2 + 1) + (2
3 + 1) + (2
4 + 1) + (2
5 + 1) = 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 = 35:
Example 3. Expand
6
j 2:
X

j =3

Solution:
32 + 42 + 52 + 62 = 9 + 16 + 25 + 36 = 86:

Properties of the Summation Symbol

P

Constant Multiple Rule:

n n
=a
X X
axi xi
i =1 i =1

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 3

Derivation:
n
= ax1 + ax2 +


+ axn
X
axi
i =1

= a(x1 + x2 +


+ xn )
n
=a
X
xi
i =1

Constant Addition Rule:

n n
(xi + b) = + nb
X X
xi
i =1 i =1

Derivation:
n
(xi + b) = (x1 + b) + (x2 + b) +


+ (xn + b)
X

i =1

= (x1 + x2 +


+ xn ) + (b + b +


+ b)
n
= + nb
X
xi
i =1

Sum of Two Sequences Rule:

n n n
(xi + yi ) = +
X X X
xi yi
i =1 i =1 i =1

Derivation:
n
(xi + yi ) = (x1 + y1) + (x2 + y2) +


+ (xn + yn )
X

i =1

= (x1 + x2 +


+ xn ) + (y1 + y2 +


+ yn )
n n
= +
X X
xi yi
i =1 i =1

Remark. These three rules are special cases of the general linearity of summation :

n n n
+ byi = a +b
X
X X
axi xi yi :
i =1 i =1 i =1

The summation index is a dummy variable: changing i to j or k does not change the value of

the sum.

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 4

Sums of Powers of Positive Integers

It is often useful to simplify series of the form

n
kq = 1q + 2q + 3q +


+ nq ;
X

k =1

where q is a positive integer.

For example:

n n
1 + 2 + 3 +


+ n = 52 + 62 +


+ n2 = k 2:
X X
k;
k =1 k =5

The results for a constant and for the three lowest powers are:

n
= c n;
X
c (4.1)
k =1

= n(n 2+ 1) ;
X n
k (4.2)
k =1

= n(n + 1)(2 n + 1)
n
k2
X
;
k =1
6 (4.3)

= n (n 4+ 1) :
n 2 2
k3
X
(4.4)
k =1

The index of summation can start at 0 or 1 depending on context; what matters is the denition

of the rst term.

P4
Example 4. Write out the terms in the series k =1 k3 and evaluate the sum. Does the result
n 3 n2 (n+1)2 ?
=
k =1 k
P
agree with the formula
4

Solution:
4
k3 = 1 + 23 + 33 + 43 = 1 + 8 + 27 + 64 = 100:
X

k =1

Using the formula:

4
= 4 (4 4+ 1) = 16 4
25 = 100:
2 2
k3
X

k =1

Thus the direct computation agrees with the formula.

Example 5. Evaluate
n n n
2xi
X X X
xj xk :
i =1 j =1 k =1

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 5

Solution: Since the index is arbitrary, we can rename them all to i

n n n n n n
2xi = 2xi
X X X X X X
xj xk xi xi
i =1 j =1 k =1 i =1 i =1 i =1
n
= (2 1 1) =0
X
xi
i =1

4.1.2 Arithmetic series

A sequence like1; 3; 5; 7; 9 is an example of an arithmetic progression, where each term is derived
from the previous one by adding a constant value  in this case, 2.

arithmetic progression
common dierence
An is a sequence of numbers in which the dierence between any two

sum arithmetic series

successive terms is constant. This constant is called the , often denoted by

h. When we take the of the terms in an arithmetic progression, we get an .

For example:

1| ; 3; {z
5; 7; 9} ! 1| + 3 +{z5 + 7 + 9}
progression series

General Form of an Arithmetic Series: An arithmetic series with rst term a, common

dierence h, and terms

ak = a + k h; k = 0; 1; : : : ; n;
is given by:
n
+ (a + h) + (a + 2h) +


+ [a + nh] = (a + k h):
X
a (4.5)
k =0

Here, a is the rst term, h is the common dierence, and ak represents the k -th term of the

sequence. Since the index k starts from 0, the last term corresponds to k = n, and therefore
the series contains n + 1 terms in total.

Deriving the Sum Formula: We can split the sum into two parts (using linearity of summation)

and apply a known formula for the sum of the rst n integers:

n n n
(a + k h) = +
X X X
a h k (4.6)
k =0 k =0 k =0

= a
(n + 1) + h
n(n 2+ 1) (4.7)

= n +2 1 [2a + nh] : (4.8)

Alternatively, since the last term is b = a + nh , the sum can also be written as

(a + k h) = n +2 1 (a + b):
n
X
(4.9)
k =0

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 6

Example 6. Find the sum of the integers from 1 to 1000 (inclusive).

With indexing = 0 to n, there are n + 1 terms. To sum 1; 2; : : : ; 1000, we set

k

a = 1; h = 1; n = 999; b = 1000

(since ak = 1 + k and a999 = 1000).

Using the formula:

S999 = 9992+ 1 (a + b) = 1000

2 (1 + 1000) = 500
1001 = 500;500:

4.1.3 Geometric Series

common ratio r
A geometric progression (or geometric sequence) is a sequence of numbers where each term

is obtained by multiplying the previous term by a constant value called the .

Examples of geometric progressions:

5; 10; 20; 40; 80; ::: (2); or 20; 10; 5; 2:5; 1:25; ::: ( 21 )
When we take the sum of the terms in a geometric progression, we obtain a geometric series.

General Form of a Geometric Series:

n
Sn = a + ar + ar 2 +


+ ar n = ar k
X
(4.10)
k =0

where a is the rst term, r is the common ratio, and there are n + 1 terms.

Finite Sum Formula:

= (11 r n+1 );
n
a
k
6= 1:
X
ar for r (4.11)
r
k =0

If r = 1, then n
ar k = a(n + 1):
X

k =0

Proof: Let

Sn = a + ar + ar 2 +


+ ar n :
Multiply by r:
r Sn = ar + ar 2 + ar 3 +


+ ar n+1:
Subtracting gives:

Sn = a ar n+1;
r Sn
(1 r )Sn = a(1 r n+1);
a(1 r n+1 )
Sn =
1 r :
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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 7

n
Example 7. 1
k ! 1?
X
Simplify the sum
3 . What value does it approach as n
k =0

Solution: 1
n+1 1
n+1

1
n  k
1 3 1 3 1
n+1 :
= = = 32 1
X  

k =0
3 1 1
3
2
3
3

n ! 1, 1
n+1 ! 0, so the sum converges to 3.

As
3 2

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 8

Exercise 1. Work with the following sums written in sigma notation:

5
X
(a) Expand and evaluate k.
k =1
6
(2j + 1).
X
(b) Expand and evaluate
j =2
(c) Write the sum 12 +22 +32 +


+102 in sigma notation, then evaluate using the formula
n 2 n(n+1)(2n+1) .
=
k =1 k
P
6
n
(3k + 2) = n2 (3n + 7).
X
(d) Show that
k =1
(e) Use sigma notation to express the arithmetic series

4 + 7 + 10 +


+ 100
and then nd its sum.

(f ) Challenge: Prove that

n
(2k 1) = n2:
X

k =1

Exercise 2. Find the sum of the rst 20 terms of the arithmetic progression 15 + 31 + 47 +

63 ...

Exercise 3. Find the sum of the rst 15 terms of the following arithmetic series:

(a) 5 + 11 + 17 + 23 + : : :
(a) 1 + 1:1 + 1:2 + 1:3 + : : :
(a) 5 + 3 + 1 1 3 :::
Exercise 4. Evaluate the sum:

10
= 1 + 2 + 3 +


+ 10
X
i
i =1

Exercise 5. Find the sum of the rst 10 terms of the following geometric series:

(a) 2 + 12 + 72 + 432 + : : :
(a) 1 + 1:1 + 1:21 + 1:331 + : : :
(a) 2 21 + 81 321 + : : :
Exercise 6. Find the sum of the geometric progression:

7
2j = 21 + 1 + 2 + 4 +


+ 128
X

j= 1

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 9

4.2 Dierentiation
4.2.1 Gradients of Curves and the Denition of the Derivative
Dierentiation is a method used to determine how quickly or slowly a function changes. More

simply, it helps us understand how a function's output varies with respect to its input. Common

examples include acceleration (the rate at which velocity changes) and reaction rates in chemistry

(how rapidly chemical concentrations change). These are instances where dierentiation measures

change over time, but it can also apply to other variables such as pressure or temperature.

Fundamentally, dierentiation deals with very small changes in one quantity resulting from very

small changes in another.

f(x )

Figure 4.1: The graph of a function ( ) shows that the gradient (or slope) of the function at
f x
P, tan , is approximately
f
point given by

x .

Figure 4.1 illustrates how the derivative of a function is dened at a point P. If x increases by

a small amount
x , the function value changes by

f = f (x +
x ) ()
f x :

The slope of the secant line through the points (x ; f (x )) and (x +
x ; f (x +
x )) is

f ;

x
which approximates the slope of the tangent line at P. Taking the limit as
x ! 0, this slope
becomes exact, and we dene the derivative of ( ) at P
f x as

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 10

( )  dfd(xx ) 
lim
f0 x
x !0
f (x +
x )

x
( ):
f x
(4.12)

x = a, the function is said to be dierentiable

non-dierentiable
provided the limit exists. When the limit exists at

at a; otherwise, it is at a.

Example 8. Use the denition of the derivative from rst principles to nd the derivative of the

function ( )=
f x ax n , where a is a constant and n is a positive integer.

Solution: If f x( ) = ax n , where n is a positive integer, then:

f (x +
x ) f (x ) a(x +
x )n ax n
f 0 (x ) = lim = lim

x !0
x
x !0
x

Using the binomial expansion:

2 x
x +



n(n1) n 2 2
+ nx 1
x +
 
n n
a x ax n
=
lim
x !0
x
a nx n 1 x
+ n(n2 1) x n 2
x 2 +



 

=
lim
x !0
x
1 + n(n 1) x n 2
x +


= anx n
 
=
lim a nx n 1
x !0 2
This result holds for any power n.

ˆ f (x ) = a (a constant), then f 0(x ) = 0 (since n = 0)

ˆ
If

f (x ) = ax , then f 0(x ) = a (since n = 1)

ˆ
If

f (x ) = xp2, then f 0(x ) = 2x

ˆ
If

If f (x ) = x = x 1=2, then
1 1
f 0 (x ) = x 1=2 = p
2 2 x
ˆ If f x ( ) = x1 = x 1, then

f0 x( ) = ( 1)x 2 = x12
Example 9. Use the denition of the derivative from rst principles to nd the derivative of the

function sin x .
Solution:
d
[sin x ] = lim
sin(x +
x ) sin x
dx
x !0
x
Using the identity:

sin(x +
x ) = sin x cos(
x ) + cos x sin(
x );

=
lim sin x (cos(
x ) 1) + cos x sin(
x )
x !0
x
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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 11

sin x
cos(

xx) 1 + cos x
sin(
x)

 
=
lim
x !0
x
Using the known limits:

lim cos(
x ) 1 = 0; lim sin(
x ) = 1;

x !0
x
x !0
x
we nd:

= sin x
0 + cos x
1 = cos x

s lo p e

1 .0

0 .5

π π/ 2 π/ 2 π

− 0 . 5

− 1 . 0

Figure 4.2: The graph of a function ( ).

si n x

For example, the slope at x = 0 (see Fig. 4.2):

d
dx
[sin x ] = cos(0) = 1
x =0

Example 10. Use the denition of the derivative from rst principles to nd the derivative of
x
the function e .

Solution:
x +
x
d e ex
dx
[e x ] = lim

x !0
x
Factor out ex from the numerator:

e x e
x 1


=
lim
x !0
x

= e

lim
x 1 e
x
x !0
x
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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 12

It is a standard limit that:

lim e
x 1 =1

x !0
x
Therefore:
d
dx
[e x ] = e x
1 = e x

s lo p e = 1

− 1 . 0 − 0 . 5 0 .0 0 .5 1 .0

Figure 4.3: The graph of a function ex .

For example, the slope at x = 0 (see Fig. 4.3):

d
dx
[e x ] = ex x =0
= e0 = 1
x =0

There are various notations for dierentiation, all of which are valid. Some notations are more

commonly used in specic elds than others. It's useful to be familiar with each system, even

if you don't use them often. Given a function y = f (x ), the rst derivative of y with respect

to x can be expressed using dierent notations:

Leibniz's Notation:
dy
dx
Lagrange's Notation: y 0 (x ); f 0 (x )
Newton's Notation: y_ ; y (commonly used for time derivatives)

4.2.2 Standard Derivatives and Rules of Dierentiation

Table 4.1 summarizes some standard derivatives.

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 13

Table 4.1: Some Standard Derivatives. Here, n and k are constants. In trigonometric functions,

x must be in radians or dimensionless.

Function f x() Derivative f 0 (x )

Basic Functions
k (constant) 0
x n
nx n 1
kxn nk x n 1

Trigonometric Functions
sin x cos x
cos x sin x
tan x sec2 x
sin(k x ) k cos(k x )
cos(k x ) k sin(k x )
tan(k x ) k sec2 (k x )

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

sin 1x
p 1 2
1 x
cos 1x
p 1 2
1 x
tan 1x 1
1 + x2
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
ex ex
ax a x
ln
a
e kx ke kx

ln(x ) 1
x
ln(k x ) 1
x

Dierentiation of a Constant Multiple of a Function

The derivative of a constant times a function is equal to the constant times the derivative of

the function.

d d
dx
[k f (x )] = k
dx
[f (x )] (4.13)

d d
Example 11.
dx
(2 sin x) = 2
dx
(sin x ) = 2 cos x
Example 12. Find the derivative of y = 2x + x3 .3

y = 2x + 3x 3

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 14

Dierentiating term-by-term:

dy
= 2 ddx [x ] + 3 ddx x 3 = 2 9x 4
 
dx

Dierentiation of a Sum or Dierence of Functions

The derivative of a sum/dierence of functions is the sum/dierence of the derivatives of the

individual functions

d d d
[f (x )  g (x )] = [f (x )]  [g (x )] (4.14)
dx dx dx

Example 13. Dierentiate y = x 1=2 + ln x .

Solution: Apply the sum rule:

d
x 1=2 + ln x = ddx (x 1=2) + ddx (ln x ):


dx

Using standard derivatives:

dy
dx
= 12 x 1=2 + 1 :
x

Dierentiation of a Product

This subsection covers the product of two functions, f x ( )
g (x ). Unlike sums or dierences,

the derivative of a product is not simply the product of the derivatives. The product rule states:

d df dg
dx
[ f (x )g (x )] = g (x )
dx
+ f (x )
dx
(4.15)

Example 14. Find the derivative of ( ) = x 3 sin x

f x with respect to x.

Solution: Using the product rule

d
x3 sin x = x 3 ddx (sin x ) + ddx (x 3) sin x


dx
= x 3 cos x + 3x 2 sin x :
Example 15. Find the derivative of f (x ) = x 2 e x with respect to x .

Solution: Using the product rule:

d
x 2e x = x 2 ddx (e x ) + ddx x 2 ex



dx
= x 2 e x + 2x e x
= e x x 2 + 2x :

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 15

Remark: The product rule for two functions can be extended to three functions ( )
g (x )
h(x ).
f x

Proof: d d
[f (x )g (x )h(x )] = f 0 (x ) g (x )h(x ) + f (x ) g (x )h(x )
   
dx dx
Applying the two-function product rule again to g (x )h (x ):

d 
( ) ( ) = g 0(x )h(x ) + g (x )h0(x )

g x h x
dx
Substitute this back:

d
[f (x )g (x )h(x )] = f 0(x )g (x )h(x ) + f (x ) g 0(x )h(x ) + g (x )h0(x )
 
dx
Simplify:

d
dx
[f (x )g (x )h(x )] = f 0(x )g (x )h(x ) + f (x )g 0(x )h(x ) + f (x )g (x )h0(x )
Example 16. Dierentiate y = x 2e x sin x with respect to x.
dy
dx
= (2x ) e x sin x + x 2 (e x ) sin x + x 2e x (cos x )
= 2x e x sin x + x 2e x sin x + x 2e x cos x

Dierentiation of a Quotient

f (x )
g (x )
It is often necessary to nd the derivative of a quotient of two functions, . Like the product

rule, the quotient rule depends not only on f0 x

( ) and g 0(x ) ()
, but also on f x and g x . ()

d ( ) = g (x )f 0(x ) f (x )g 0(x )
f x
 

g (x ) [g (x )]2 (4.16)
dx

Example 17. If y = 2x 3++15 , nd

x2 dy
dx
.

Solution. Using the quotient rule with f x ( ) = x 2 + 1 and g (x ) = 2x 3 + 5, we have:

= g (x )
f (x[g)(x )]f 2(x )
g (x ) = (2x + 5)(2

dy 0 0 3 x ) (x 2 + 1)(6x 2 )
dx (2x 3 + 5)2
dy 2 x 4 6x 2 + 10x
= (2x 3 + 5)2
dx
d
Example 18. Find
dx
[tan x ] using the quotient rule.

Since
sin x , let u = sin x
tan x = cos and v = cos x . Then u0 = cos x , v 0 = sin x , and:
x
d sin x = cos x
cos x sin x
( sin x ) = cos2 x + sin2 x = sec2 x
 

dx cos x cos2 x cos2 x

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 16

Special Case: Reciprocal Rule

A useful special case of the quotient rule occurs when

y = f (1x ) :
Applying the quotient rule with = 1 and v = f (x ):
u

d 1 = 0
f (x ) 1
f 0(x ) = f 0(x ) :
 

d x f (x ) [f (x )]2 [f (x )]2
This is called the reciprocal rule.
Example 19. Find the derivative of cot x using the reciprocal rule.

Solution: Recall that

cot x = cos x
= 1 :
sin x tan x
Using the reciprocal rule:
d
d [tan x ]
dx
[cot x ] = dx
[tan x ]2 :
d
Since
dx
[tan x ] = sec2 x , we get:
d
[cot x] =
sec2 x = csc2 x :
dx tan2 x

Dierentiation of a Function of a Function (Chain Rule)

Products are one type of composite function we may need to dierentiate. Another important

type is a function of a function, also known as a composite function. For example, consider

( ) = (3 + x 2)3, which can be written as f (g (x )) = g (x )3, where g (x ) = 3 + x 2.

f x If
f ,
g ,
and
x are small nite quantities, then:

f =
f

g :

x
g
x
As these quantities become innitesimally small, we obtain:

df
dx
= ddfg
dd gx :
This is known as the chain rule . It must be applied whenever we dierentiate a function that

depends on another function.

d
dx
( ( )) = f 0(g (x ))
g 0(x )
f g x (4.17)

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 17

Example 20. Find the derivative with respect to x of ( ) = (3 + x 2)3.

f x

Solution: Let ( ) = 3 + x 2, so that f (x ) = g (x )3.

g x

Using the chain rule:

df
dx
= ddfg
dd gx = 3g (x )2
ddx (3 + x 2) = 3g (x )2
2x = 6x (3 + x 2)2:
Example 21. Find the derivative of

y = sin4(2x )
with respect to x.

Solution:
y = [sin(2x )]4 :
Let u = sin(2x ), so y = u 4. Using the chain rule:

dy
dx
= dd yu
dd ux :
We have:
dy du
du
= 4u 3; dx
= cos(2x )
2:
Thus:
dy
dx
= 4 [sin(2x )]3
[2 cos(2x )] = 8 sin3(2x ) cos(2x ):
d dy
Example 22. Find
dx
(y 4) in terms of dx
, where y is a function of x.

Solution: Using the chain rule:

d d dy dy
( y 4) = (y 4)
= 4y3
:
dx dy dx dx

Example 23. Proof using the Chain Rule:

d
dx
(ax ) = ax ln a:
We start by rewriting ax in terms of the natural exponential function:

ax = e x ln a :
Dierentiate both sides with respect to x using the chain rule:

d d
(ax ) = e x ln a = e x ln a
ddx (x ln a):


dx dx

Since ln a is a constant:
d
dx
(x ln a) = ln a:
MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26
Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 18

d
( ax ) = e x ln a
ln a:
dx

replacing e x ln a with ax :
d
dx
(ax ) = ax ln a:

Derivative of the Inverse Function

Let f be dierentiable and invertible on an interval, and let a be such that ( ) 6= 0.

f0 a Writing

b = ()
f a , the inverse f 1 is dierentiable at b and

(f 1)0(b) = f 0(1a) = 1
:
f0 f 1 b ()
Equivalently, if y = f (x ) with f 0(x ) 6= 0, then
dy

dx
dx dy
= 1; dx
dy
= dy1 :
dx

This result is particularly useful when nding the derivative of an inverse function.

d 1 x.
Example 24. Derivative of Inverse Sine. Find
dx
sin

Solution: Let y = sin 1 x. Then x = sin y , so

dx
dy
= cos y :

Since sin2 y + cos2 y = 1 and sin y = x , we obtain

cos y = 1 x 2:
p

= sin 1x 2  
cos y  0, so the positive square root must be taken.
 
Because y 2; 2 , we know

Thus,
dx
= 1 x2 ) dy
=p 1
p
:
dy dx 1 x2

Therefore, for 1 < x < 1 (not dierentiable at x = 1),

d
sin 1x = p 1 :
dx 1 x2
d
Example 25. Derivative of Inverse Cosine. Find
dx
cos 1 x.

Solution: Let y = cos 1 x, so that cos y = x with 0  y  . Dierentiating implicitly with

respect to x gives
d
cos y = ddx (x );


dx

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26

Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 19

sin y dd yx = 1;
so
dy
dx
= sin1 y :

To rewrite sin y in terms of x,cos y = x . Thus

note that

sin2 y = 1 cos2 y = 1 x 2:

Since y 2 [0;  ], we have sin y  0. Therefore

sin y = 1 x 2:
p

Substituting back, we obtain

dy
= p 1 :
dx 1 x2

Therefore, for 1 < x < 1 (not dierentiable at x = 1),

d
cos 1x = p 1 :
dx 1 x2

4.2.3 Higher Derivatives

So far, we have only discussed the rst derivative of a function. However, the derivative of a

function y x ( ) is itself another function of x , which can often be dierentiated again. This leads

to the concept of higher-order derivatives.

The second derivative is dened in the same way as the rst derivative, but applied to f0 x
( ):
f 0 (x +
x ) f0 x
()
( ) 
lim
f 00 x
x !0
x
provided the limit exists. A common example of a second derivative is acceleration: since velocity

is the rst derivative of position, the second derivative gives the acceleration of a particle.

We can extend this idea to dene the nth derivative of a function recursively:

f (n) (x )  lim ( +
x )
f (n 1) x ( );
f (n 1) x

x !0
x

Here, ( )  f (1)(x ), f 00(x )  f (2)(x ), and so on, with f (0)(x )  f (x ) by denition.

f0 x

Higher derivatives are commonly written as:

d 2y d 3y
or y 00 (second derivative); (third derivative); :::
dx2 dx3

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 20

Example 26. If y = x 3 + 2x , then:

dy d 2y d 3y d 4y
dx
= 3x 2 + 2; dx2
= 6x ; dx3
= 6; dx4
=0
Example 27. Find the rst three derivatives of

y = x 2e 3x :

Solution: First derivative:

y0 = 2x e 3x + x 2(3e 3x ) = (2x + 3x 2)e 3x :

Second derivative:

y 00 = [2 + 6x ] e 3x + (2x + 3x 2)(3e 3x ) = (2 + 6x + 6x + 9x 2)e 3x = (2 + 12x + 9x 2)e 3x :

Third derivative:

y 000 = (12+18x )e 3x +(2+12x +9x 2)(3e 3x ) = (12+18x +6+36x +27x 2)e 3x = (18+54x +27x 2)e 3x :
Example 28. Find the second derivative of

y = sin(5x 2):

Solution: First derivative:

y0 = cos(5x 2)
(10x ) = 10x cos(5x 2):

Second derivative (product rule on 10x cos(5x 2)):
y 00 = 10 cos(5x 2) + 10x sin(5x 2)
(10x )
 

= 10 cos(5x 2) 100x 2 sin(5x 2):

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 21

Exercise 7. Find from rst principles the derivative with respect to x of ( ) = x 2.

f x

Exercise 8. Dierentiate the following with respect to the independent variable:

(a)
px ,
3

2x ,
(b)
4+x
(c) (t 2 + 5)4,
(d) (x 2 + 3) sin 3x ,
(e) (3x 2 + 2x + 1) cos x ,
(f ) tan(1 + x 2),
2x + 3 ,
x + 5x + 6
(g)
4
(h) e5x ,

(i) tan 1 x ,
(j) sin 1(x 2).
d dy
Exercise 9. Let y depend on x. Find
dx
(3y 2 + sin y ) in terms of y and
dx
.

Exercise 10. Find y 000 given that = x 6 + 3 sin 2x .

y

Exercise 11. Given that y = e 3x , show that y (4) = 34e 3x , and nd an expression for y (n),
n  0.
dy
Exercise 12. Find when
dx

(a) y = ln(cos x )
(b) y =tan 1(sin x )
5
x
y =
(c)
1+x
d ny
Exercise 13. Find
dxn
, for n  1, when

(a) y = ln x
(b) y = e 3x +4

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 22

4.3 Implicit, Logarithmic, and Parametric Dierentiation

implicit dierentiation
logarithmic dierentiation
In this section, we develop further techniques for calculating derivatives: (1) ,

where y is dened only implicitly in terms of x; (2) , which is useful

parametric dierentiation
(or necessary) when taking logarithms simplies the expression before dierentiating; and (3)

, where y is expressed in terms of x via a third variablethe parameter.

We then use the rst and second derivatives (and in some cases, higher derivatives) to identify

points where a function has extreme valuesthat is, local maxima or minima.

4.3.1 Implicit Dierentiation

y x.
implicitly
In many cases, it is not possible (or practical) to express a function explicitly in terms of

Instead, the relationship between x and y is given by an equation where y is dened .

dy
In such cases, we use implicit dierentiation to nd
dx
.

The key idea is to dierentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x, treating y as a

function of x. This means that when dierentiating any term involving y, we must apply the

chain rule.

Example 29. Dierentiate the following equation implicitly:

x2 + y 2 4x + 5y = 0

Solution: Dierentiate both sides with respect to x:

d d d d d
(x 2) + (y 2 ) (4x) + (5y) = (0)
dx dx dx dx dx

2x + 2y dd yx 4 + 5 dd yx = 0

dy
Now collect terms involving :
dx

(2y + 5) dd yx = 4 2x

dy
:
dx
dy
dx
= 24y +2x5 :
d 2y
Example 30. Find
dx2
when x2 + y 2 = R2, where R is a constant.
dy
Solution: This equation implicitly denes y as a function of x. We can nd directly, without
dx
solving explicitly for y, by applying implicit dierentiation.

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 23

Dierentiate both sides with respect to x:

d d dy
dx
(x 2 + y 2) =
dx
(R2 ) ) 2x + 2y
dx
= 0:
dy x
dx
= y
:

Now dierentiate again with respect to x. Using the quotient rule on x =y :

d 2y d

x

y (1) + x
dy
dx2
= dx y
= dx
y2
:

dy x
Substituting
dx
= y
:

+x
 
x

= (y y +
d 2y y y x2 2 x 2)
= =
y y
:
dx2 y2 y2 3

Since x2 + y 2 = R2, we get:

d 2y R2
dx2
= y3
:

d 2y d 2x
Example 31. Find a relationship connecting and .
dx2 dy2

d 2x
Solution: We note that involves two dierentiations with respect to y, and we aim to
dy2
express it in terms of derivatives with respect to x.

First, observe:
 1
dx dy


dy
= dx
=z (say):

Now dierentiate z with respect to y using the chain rule:

d 2x
dy2
= dd yz = dd xz
dd yx :

1
Dierentiate z = dy
dx
with respect to x:
 1  2
dz d dy dy d 2y

dx2 :
 

dx
= dx dx
= dx

Substitute back:
 2  1
d 2x d 2y
d 2y
dy dy

dx2

 

dy2
= dx dx
= dx 2

:
dy 3
dx

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 24

Note: The second derivatives

d 2y
dx2
and
d 2x
dy2
are not reciprocals. The reciprocal relationship

holds only for rst derivatives.

4.3.2 Logarithmic Dierentiation

In some cases, especially when dierentiating products, quotients, or functions where the variable

logarithmic dierentiation
appears in the exponent, standard rules become cumbersome. In such situations, we can use

to simplify the process.

The idea is to apply logarithms to both sides of the equation, then dierentiate using logarithmic

identities: a
ln(ab) = ln a + ln b; ln b
= ln a ln b; ln(ab ) = b ln a:
Example 32. Dierentiate y =x x
(for x > 0).
Solution: Let y = xx. Taking natural logarithms of both sides gives

ln y = x ln x :
Dierentiate both sides with respect to x:

1 d y = d (x ln x ):
y dx dx

Using the product rule:

1 d y = (1)(ln x ) + x 1 = ln x + 1:
 

y dx x
Finally, multiplying through by y = xx gives

dy
dx
= x x (ln x + 1):

4.3.3 Parametric Functions and their Derivatives

The functions that we have met so far have been represented by one or more equations of the

form y = f (x ) (or in the case of implicit functions, f (x ; y ) = 0). It is sometimes convenient, or

x y t .
parameter
even necessary, to express both and in terms of a third variable such as or This variable

is called a .

Thus, a general function expressed in parametric form is:

x = g (t ); y = h(t ):

A more economical notation is:

x = x (t ); y = y (t ):
MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26
Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 25

dy
To nd , we then use the result:
dx

dy
dx
= dd yx =d
=d t
t
:

dy d 2y
Example 33. Given x = a( sin ) and y = a(1 cos ), nd dx
and
dx2
.

Solution:
dx dy
d
= a(1 cos ); d
= a sin :

Hence,

= a(1a sincos sin  :

dy
dy 
dx
= d
dx
)
= 1 cos 
d

Now, to nd the second derivative:

d 2y d dy d d dy
= dx
d
   

dx2
= dx dx dx
:

Using the quotient rule:

d sin  (1 cos ) cos  sin 
sin  = cos  1 :

 

d 1 cos  = (1 cos )2 (1 cos )2

Also,
d
dx
= dx1 = a(1 1cos ) :
d

Therefore,
d 2y
dx2
= (1cos cos
 1
)2
1
a(1 cos  )
= 1
a(1 cos  )2
:

Note: Since
dy
dx
is expressed in terms of , we must use the chain rule to convert the derivative

to be with respect to .

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 26

4.4 Stationary Points, Local Extrema, and Inection Points

In engineering analysis, understanding stationary points is crucial for optimization, stability

assessment, and system design. The derivative of a function ( ) represents its instantaneous
f x
rate of change. At a stationary point, the derivative is zero  the tangent line to the curve is
horizontal, indicating a momentary pause in growth or decay.

Figure 4.4: Example of a function with a local maximum at x = a, a local minimum at x = b,

and a stationary inection at x = c. Vertical dashed lines mark the x -positions; horizontal

purple lines show the at tangents where f 0 (x ) = 0.

4.4.1 Denition and Types of Stationary Points

For a function ( ), a stationary point occurs at:
f x

df
f0 x
( )=0 or equivalently = 0:
dx
At such points, the curve is locally at. These can be classied as:

ˆ Local Maximum: The function rises before the point and falls after it  analogous to

ˆ Local Minimum:
a hilltop in a road prole.

The function falls before the point and rises after it  like a valley

ˆ Stationary Inection (Saddle) Point:

in terrain elevation.

The function is at at the point but continues

in the same overall direction; concavity changes, but there is no peak or trough.

4.4.2 First Derivative Test

The rst derivative test determines the type of stationary point by inspecting the sign change

of f 0 (x ) in the neighbourhood of a point x = a where f 0(a) = 0:

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26
Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 27

ˆ Local Maximum: f 0(x ) > 0 just before a and f0 x <

( ) 0 just after a  the curve rises
ˆ Local Minimum: f 0(x ) < 0
then falls.

just before a and f0 x >

( ) 0 just after a  the curve falls
ˆ Stationary Inection: f 0(x )
then rises.

maintains the same sign on both sides  the curve is at

but continues in the same direction, with a change in concavity.

L o c a l m a x

C o n c a v e d o w n

C o n c a v e u p

L o c a l m in

d o e s n o t c h a n g e s ig n d o e s n o t c h a n g e s ig n

Figure 4.5: Four types of stationary points based on the sign change of f0 x ( ) and concavity:
(top left) local maximum; (top right) local minimum; (bottom left) rising inection; (bottom

right) falling inection.

Important Notes:

ˆ turning point f0 x
( ) changes sign.
ˆ
A is a stationary point where

ˆ
All turning points are stationary, but not all stationary points are turning points.

inection point ( ) 6= 0.
f0 x
ˆ
An marks a change in concavity; it may occur even if

Always check the domain: endpoints can yield global extrema even if they are not stationary.

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 28

4.4.3 Second Derivative Test for Local Maxima and Minima

The second derivative describes the concavity of a function. At a stationary point x = a where
f 0 (a ) = 0 , the value of f 00 (a) can help classify the point:

L o c a l m a x

C o n c a v e d o w n
C o n c a v e u p

L o c a l m in

ˆ f 00 a <
( ) 0, the graph is concave down  x = a is a local maximum.
ˆ
If

f 00 a >
( ) 0, the graph is concave up  x = a is a local minimum.
ˆ
If

If f 00 a
( ) = 0, the test is inconclusive  apply the rst derivative test or examine

higher-order derivatives.

Higher-order derivative test: Sometimes, both the rst and second derivatives vanish at a

point, making the usual second derivative test inconclusive. In such cases, we examine successive

derivatives until we nd the rst nonzero term.

Suppose at x = a:
( ) = f 00(a) = f (3)(a) =


= f (n 1)(a) = 0;
f0 a ( ) 6= 0:
f (n ) a

ˆ The number n tells us how at the function is near x = a. The higher n, the longer the

ˆ
tangent stays close to the curve before it bends.

If n is even, the rst nonzero derivative behaves like an even-power term in a Taylor

expansion. The curve bends in the same direction on both sides of a, meaning a is an

extremum:

 f (n) (a) > 0  concave up near a local minimum. 

 f (a) < 0  concave down near a
(n)
local maximum. 
ˆ
If n is odd, the rst nonzero derivative behaves like an odd-power term, so the curve bends

in opposite directions on each side of a. This produces a point of inection.

Example 34.
f (x ) = x 4 ) f 0(0) = f 00(0) = f (3)(0) = 0; f (4)(0) = 24 > 0
Here n = 4 (even), f (4)(0) > 0  local minimum at x = 0.

( ) = x 5 ) f 0(0) = f 00(0) = f (3)(0) = f (4)(0) = 0;

f x f (5) (0) = 120 > 0
Here n = 5 (odd)  point of inection at x = 0.

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 29

4.4.4 Inection Points  Changing Concavity

Denition: A point x = a is a point of inection if:

ˆ f x( ) is continuous at a, and
ˆ
The function

The graph changes concavity at a  from concave up to concave down, or vice versa.

Geometrically, an inection point is where the curve changes the direction of its bending.

Inection Point Test:

1. Find candidates: Compute f 00 (x ) (if it exists) and solve f 00 (x ) = 0 or identify points

00
where f (x ) does not exist.

2. Check continuity: Ensure f (x ) is continuous at the candidate point(s). If not, the point
cannot be an inection.

3. Test concavity change: Examine the sign of f 00 (x ) just before and after the candidate:
ˆ00
If f (x ) changes from positive to negative 
ˆ 
concave up to concave down.
00
If f (x ) changes from negative to positive concave down to concave up.

4. Optional shortcut: If ( ) = 0 and f (3)(a) 6= 0, a concavity change occurs  x = a is

f 00 a
an inection point.

5. Classify:
ˆ0
If f (a) = 0  stationary inection
ˆ  non-stationary inection
.

If f (a) 6= 0
0 .

Note: If f 00 x
( ) does not exist at a but concavity changes (e.g., f (x ) = x 1=3 at x = 0), the point
still qualies as an inection.

Example 35. Find the positions and natures of the stationary points of the function ( )=
f x
2x 3 3x 2 36x + 2:
Solution: The rst criterion for a stationary point is that
df
dx
= 0. Thus, we set

df
dx
= 6x 2 6x 36 = 0:
MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26
Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 30

6 0

4 0

2 0

− 4 − 3 − 2 − 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
− 2 0

− 4 0

− 6 0

− 8 0

Figure 4.6: Given the function ( ) = 2x 3 3x 2 36x + 2:

f x

Solving this, we get

(x 3)(x + 2) = 0:
Therefore, the stationary points are at x = 3 and x = 2. To determine the nature of these

stationary points, we need to evaluate the second derivative:

d 2f
dx2
= 12x 6:

Now, we examine each stationary point:

1. For x = 3:
d 2f
= 12
3 6 = 36 6 = 30:
dx2
Since this value is positive, we conclude that x = 3 is a local minimum.

2. For x = 2:
d 2f
= 12
( 2) 6 = 24 6 = 30:
dx2
Since this value is negative, we conclude that x = 2 is a local maximum.
To nd the point of inection, we analyze the second derivative of the function. Set the

second derivative equal to zero:

12x 6 = 0 ) x = 12
Now check concavity on either side of x = 12 :
MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26
Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 31

ˆ x < 12 , x = 0: f 00 (0) = 6 < 0 ) concave down.

ˆ
For say

For x > 12 , say x = 1: f 00 (1) = 6 > 0 ) concave up.

Since the concavity changes sign at x = 21 , there is a point of inection there.

Now calculate the function value at this point:
 3  2
1 =2 1 3 12 36 12 + 2 = 41 3 18 + 2 = 33
   
f
2 2 4 2
1 33

The point of inection is at
2; 2
Example 36. Find the stationary points of y = (x 1)4(x 2).
Solution: y = (x 1)4(x 2);
hence

y0
= 4(x 1)3(x 2) + (x 1)4;
= (x 1)3 [4(x 2) + (x 1)] ;
= (x 1)3(5x 9):
(Note the techniquedo not expand the brackets!)
Thus, y0 = 0 when x = 1 and x = 95 .
Now,

y 00= 3(x 1)2(5x 9) + (x 1)3
5;

= (x 1)2 [3(5x 9) + 5(x 1)] ;
= (x 1)2(20x 32):

Putting x = 95 , we get y 00 9
> 0

5 and hence there is a minimum when x = 59 .
However, y 00 (1) = 0, and so this test is inconclusive.
A value of x just greater than 1 can be written as 1 + , where  is positive and small, so that
when x = 1 + , the value of y 0 (x ) = y 0 (1 + )
is given by:

y 0 (1 + ) = (1 +  1)3 (5(1 + ) 9) = 3 (5 4);

which will be negative as  is small and positive.

Similarly, if x = 1 , where  is again small and positive, then x is just less than 1, and
y 0 (1 ) = (1  1)3 [5(1 ) 9] = ( )3 ( 5 4) = 3 (5 + 4);

which is positive.

So, using case given above, there is a maximum when x = 1.

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26
Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 32

4.4.5 Greatest and Least Values

local
maximum local minimum
The maximum and minimum values, or to give them their more correct names, the

and values, do not necessarily provide any information about the

greatest and least values of the function. This is because, as their names imply, the local values

only describe what is happening in a small locality.

The greatest value of f (x ) in the interval a  x  b is either f (a), f (b), or the greatest local
maximum of f x ( ) in the interval  whichever is the largest.
Similarly, the least value of f (x ) in the interval a  x  b is either f (a), f (b), or the smallest
local minimum of ( ) in the interval  whichever is the smallest.
f x

Find the greatest and least values of f (x ) = x

Example 37. 3 12x + 20 in the interval
3  x  5.
Solution: Let

f x ( ) = x 3 12x + 20
f 0 (x ) = 3x 2 12; f 00 (x ) = 6x

Set f0 x
( ) = 0:
3x 2 12 = 0 ) x 2 = 4 ) x = 2

Check the nature of these points using the second derivative:

f 00 (2) = 12 > 0 ) local minimum at x = 2

f 00 ( 2) = 12 < 0 ) local maximum at x = 2

Evaluate the function at the endpoints and critical points:

f ( 3) = ( 3)3 12( 3) + 20 = 27 + 36 + 20 = 29
f ( 2) = ( 2)3 12( 2) + 20 = 8 + 24 + 20 = 36
f (2) = (2)3 12(2) + 20 = 8 24 + 20 = 4

f (5) = (5)3 12(5) + 20 = 125 60 + 20 = 85

The greatest value is 85 at x = 5, and the least value is 4 at x = 2.

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26

Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 33

1 0 0

8 0

6 0

4 0

2 0

− 4 − 3 − 2 − 1 1 2 3 4 5 6

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26

Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 34

dy
Exercise 14. Find
dx
when y = x sin x
px
Exercise 15. Dierentiate y =x
dy
Exercise 16. Find given that
dx

x3 + y = 1 + y 3:
dy
Exercise 17. Given y =3 x2
, nd
dx
.

dy
Exercise 18. Find the value of
dx
when t = 1, given that
x = 1 + t 5; y = t + t 2 + t 3:
Exercise 19. Regard y as the independent variable and x as the dependent variable, and use
dx
implicit dierentiation to nd .
dy

(a) x 4y 2 x 3y
+ 2x y 3 = 0.
(b) y sec = tan y .
x x

Exercise 20. Find the maximum points, minimum points and points of inection of

3 x2
(a) y = x3 2 + 10,
(b) y = x2 +
250 .
x

Exercise 21. Find the greatest and least values of (

x x 6)2 in the interval 1  x  9.

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 35

4.5 Power Series

A power series is an innite series of the form:

1
a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 +


= an x n ;
X
(4.18)
n=0

where a0 ; a1 ; a2 ; : : : are constants known as the coecients of the series.

Many functions ( ) can be represented as a power series by determining suitable values of the
f x
coecients an . Power series play a critical role in both pure and applied mathematics. Some

key applications include:

ˆ Approximation: Representing complex or transcendental functions (e.g., ex , sin x , ln(1 +

x)
ˆ Term-by-term integration and dierentiation:
) as innite polynomials for numerical computation.

Especially useful when exact integrals of

ˆ Modeling physical systems:

functions are not available in closed form.

Linearization of nonlinear equations in control theory and

signal processing.

4.5.1 Maclaurin series

A function ( ), whose derivatives of all orders exist at x = 0, can be expanded into a power
f x
series known as the Maclaurin series. Let f (n) denote the n-th derivative of f, where:

f (0) x
( ) = f (x );
f (1) (x ) = f 0 (x );
( ) = f 00(x );
f (2) x and so on:

Then, the Maclaurin series for ( ) is given by:

f x

1 (n)
x x 2 (2) x 3 (3) f (0) n
( ) = f (0) + (1)
f (0) + f (0) + f (0) +


=
X
f x x :
1! 2! 3! n=0
n!
(4.19)

Note: By denition, 0! = 1, which ensures that the series starts with the term f (0).

Example

38. Find Maclaurin Series for Logarithmic Functions: ( ) = ln(1 + x ), ln(1 + x ), and
f x
ln 1+x
1 x

Solution: We rst nd the derivatives:

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26

Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 36

( ) = ln(1 + x );
f x ( ) = (13
+2 x
)14 ;
f (4) x

f (1) (x ) =
1 ; f (5) (x ) =
4
3
2
1;
1+x (1 + x )5
f (2) (x ) =
1 ; .
.
(1 + x )2 .

f (3) (x ) =
2
1 ;
(1 + x )3
We observe the pattern:

f (n) x
(n 1)! :
( ) = ( 1)n+1 (1 + x )n
Evaluating these at x = 0:
f (n) (0) = ( 1)n+1(n 1)!:
That is,
f (0) (0) = 0; f (1) (0) = 1; f (2) (0) = 1; f (3)(0) = 2;
f (4) (0) = 6; f (5) (0) = 24; f (6) (0) = 120;



So, the Maclaurin coecients are:

= f n(0) ( 1)n+1(n 1)! = ( 1)n+1 :

(n)
an
! = n! n
That is,

a0 = 0; a1 = 1; a2 = 1; a = 1;
3
a4 =
1; 1
a5 = ; a6 =
12 ;


3
4 5 6
Maclaurin series for ln(1 + x ):
2 3 4 n
ln(1 + x ) = x x2 + x3 x4 +


+ ( 1)n+1 xn +


(4.20)

To nd the Maclaurin series for ln(1 x ), we substitute x 7! x into the Maclaurin series for
ln(1 + x ), giving:
2 3 4 n
ln(1 x ) = x x2 x3 x4


xn



Now, consider the function:

ln 11 + xx = ln(1 + x ) ln(1 x3 x5 x 2n+1

+ 3 + 5 +


+ 2n + 1 +



   
x )=2 x :

4.5.2 Taylor series

The Taylor series is very similar to the Maclaurin series. The key dierence is that a Taylor

series expands a function about a general point = x0, while the Maclaurin series is specically
x
centered at x = 0. If a function f (x ) has derivatives of all orders at a point x = x0 , it can be

expanded in a power series in terms of (x x0 ). This expansion is called the Taylor series of
f (x ) about x = x0 .

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 37

The Taylor series of ( ) centered at x = x0 is given by:

f x

( ) = f (x0) + f 1!(x0) (x ) + f 2!(x0) (x ) + f 3!(x0) (x

(1) (2) (3)
f x x0 x0 2 x0 3 ) +


(4.21)

Or, more compactly:

1 (n)
f (x0 )
( )= ! (x )n :
X
f x x0 (4.22)
n
n=0

Tip for Engineering Students: Taylor series are powerful tools for approximating nonlinear

functions near a point of interest x0 , which is especially useful in control systems, signal

processing, and numerical methods.

Example 39. Find the Taylor Series for cos x about x0 = 4

Solution: We start with the derivatives of ( ) = cos x
f x and their values at x = 4 :
p
( ) = cos x 
= 22 ,


f x f 4 p
f0 x
( ) = sin x 0
f 4 =

2,
p2
f 00 x( ) = cos x f 00 4 =

2,
p2
f 000 x
( ) = sin x f 000 4 =

2.
2
The Taylor series for cos x about x = 4 is:

0  + (x 4 ) f 00  + (x 4 ) f 000  +



 2  3
cos x = f 4 + (x )
       

f
p p 4 4
p 2! p 4 3! 4
= 22 22 (x 2
(x 4 ) + 2
(x 4 ) +



 2  3

4)

2 2! 2 3!
Example 40. Find the Taylor Series for ( ) = ln(x ) about x = 2
f x

Solution:
( ) = ln(x )
f (0) x f (0) (2) = ln(2)
f (1) (x ) =
1 f (1) (2) =
1
x
1 21
f (x ) =
(2) f (2) =
(2)
2 x2
2 4 1
f (3) (x ) = 3 f (2) =
8 =6 4 3
(3)

f (x ) =
(4)
x
2
3 f (4) (2) = = 8
2
x4
3
4 16
24 = 3
f (5) (x ) = f (5) (2) =
x5 32 4
We can generalize for n  1:

(2) = ( 1) 2(nn 1)!

n+1
( ) = ( 1)n+1(n 1)!
x
f (n ) x n
; so f (n)

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 38

The Taylor series of ( ) = ln(x ) about x = 2 is:

f x
1 (n ) 1 (n)
f (2) f (2)
( )= ! (x 2) = f (2) + n=1
n
! (x 2)
n
X X
f x
n n
n=0

Substituting in the general formula for f (n) (2), we get:

1 1
( ) = ln(2) +
f x
X ( 1)n+1(n 1)! (x 2)n = ln(2) + X ( 1)n+1 (x 2)n
n!
2n n
2n
n=1 n=1

ˆ (n 1)! = 1 .
n!
We simplied the ratio

ˆ The constant term

n
ln(2) was written separately because the general formula does not

n = 0.
ˆ
cover

This is a common scenario in Taylor expansions  don't worry if a general term doesn't

apply at n = 0; just write that part separately.

Example 41. Find the Taylor Series for ( ) = ex
f x about x =0
Solution: This is one of the simplest and most important Taylor series in calculus.

To nd the Taylor series of a function f x ( ) about a point x = a, we use:

1 (n)
f (a )
( )= (x )n
X
f x a
n!
n=0

In this case, we are expanding about x = 0, so we are computing the Maclaurin series of e x .
We observe that for all n  0:
n
( ) = ddx n e x = e x
f (n ) x ) f (n) (0) = e 0 = 1
Substituting into the Taylor series formula:

1 1 n
e x
X1
= n! x = xn!
n
X

n=0 n=0

The function ex is equal to its Taylor series for all real (and even complex) x. This series

converges everywhere, making it incredibly useful in analysis, physics, and engineering.

4.5.3 Binomial Series

One important power series to know is the binomial series, which provides a power series

expansion for expressions of the form (1 + x )p , where p can be any real or complex number.

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 39

The general binomial series is:

1
( 1) p (p 1)(p 2) 3
p p
x +


=
p
 
p 2
(1 + x ) = 1 + px + 2! x + x n;
X
3! n=0
n
(4.23)

where the generalized binomial coecient is dened as:

p
= ( p p 1)(p 2)


(p n + 1) ;  1; p
   

n n!
for n
0 = 1: (4.24)

Validity: This expansion is valid for any real or complex p, but the series converges only for
jx j < 1, unless p is a non-negative integer (in which case it terminates and is valid for all x ).
Factorial Reminder: The factorial function is dened as:

n ! = 1
2
3


(n 1)
n
with examples:

2! = 2; 5! = 120; 7! = 5040
Special Case  Integer Powers: If p = n 2 N, a non-negative integer, the binomial series

becomes a nite polynomial known from algebra:

n  
n
(1 + x ) =
n
xk
X
k
k =0

Innite Series Case: If p is not a non-negative integer (e.g., negative, fractional, or irrational),
then the series has innitely many terms and is used primarily as an approximation when

jx j < 1.
Applications: The binomial series is especially useful for approximating expressions like:

p
1 + x ; 1 +1 x ; (1 + x )r ;
when x is small and r is not a whole number. It is widely used in calculus, numerical analysis,

and physics.

Example 42. Expand (1 + y )3

Solution: Here, p = 3 is a positive integer, so the binomial expansion terminates after a nite
number of terms.

(1 + y )3 = 1 + 3y + 32!
2 y 2 + 3
3!2
1 y 3 = 1 + 3y + 3y 2 + y 3

Example 43. Expand (1 )

x 1=2 up to the term in x3

Solution: Here, p = 12 is not a positive integer, so the binomial series has innitely many terms.
However, we will expand up to the term in x 3.

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 40

1
( 1) 1
( 1)
( 3)
(1 x 1=2
) = 1 + 21 ( x ) + 2 2! 2 ( x )2 + 2 2
3!
2 ( x )3 +

= 1 12 x 18 x 2 16 1 x3 +

p
Note that (1 )
x 1=2 = 1 x, and this series approximation is valid for jx j < 1.

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 41

4.6 Applications of Power Series: Derivation of L'Hôpital's

Rule
L'Hôpital's Rule is a powerful tool for evaluating limits that yield indeterminate forms such as
0 1.
0 or
1 It can be derived using Taylor series expansions.

Statement of the Rule. Suppose f and g are dierentiable on an open interval containing

x0 (except possibly at x0 ) and g 0 (x ) 6= 0 near x0 . If either

lim
x!x
f (x ) = 0
0
and
x
lim
!x
g (x ) = 0;
0

or

lim
x!x
jf (x )j = 1
0
and
x
lim
!x
jg (x )j = 1;
0

and if the limit

f 0 (x )
L = xlim
! x g 0 (x )
0

exists (nite or 1), then

f (x )
lim
x ! x g (x )
0
= L:

Derivation Using Taylor Series: Expand both ( ) and g (x ) about the point x = x0
f x using

Taylor series:

) ( ) + (x 2!x0) f 00(x0) +



2
f x( ) = f (x0) + (x x0 f 0 x0

( x x0 ) 00
= (x x0) f (x0) + 2! f (x0) +



 
0

Since limx !x 0 f (x ) = 0, we have f (x0 ) = 0, and the expansion simplies.

Similarly,

) + (x x0 ) g 00(x ) +



 
( ) = (x
g x x0 ) g 0 (x 0 0
2!
f (x )
Now, we form
g (x )
and the factor (x x0 ) cancels out
( ) = f 0(x0) + (x 2!x ) f 00(x0) +



f x 0

g (x ) g 0 (x0 ) + 2! g 00 (x0 ) +



(x x ) 0

Taking the limit as x ! x0, all higher-order terms vanish:

f (x ) f 0 (x0 ) f 0 (x )
lim
x !x g (x )
0
= g 0 (x0 )
= lim
x !x g 0 (x ) 0

Recursive Application

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 42

If f 0 x0
( ) = 0 and g 0(x0) = 0 as well, then L'Hôpital's Rule can be applied again:
f (x ) f 00 (x0 ) f 00 (x )
lim
x !x g (x )
0
= g 00 (x0 )
= lim
x !x g 00 (x )
0

Note that L'Hôpital's rule uses the derivative of the numerator divided by the derivative of the

denominator and not the derivative of (the numerator divided by the denominator)

Example 44. Evaluate

lim ln
p x
:
x !1 x

Solution: As x ! 1, both numerator and denominator tend to innity, so the expression is of

1
the indeterminate form
1. We apply L'Hôpital's Rule:

ln 1 p
2 x:
lim p x
= xlim x
1 = xlim
x !1 x !1 2px !1 x

Simplify:

lim p2 = 0:
x !1 x

Therefore,

lim ln
px = 0:
x !1 x

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 43

Exercise 22. Find the rst ve non-zero terms in the Maclaurin series expansion of ( )=
f x
sin x , and a formula for the n-th term.
Exercise 23. Find the rst four non-zero terms in the Maclaurin series expansion of ( )=
f x
ln(1 + e ).
x

Exercise 24. Find the rst four terms in the Taylor series expansion of e x=2 about x =2
Exercise 25. Find the Taylor series for sin x about the point x = a, where a is a constant.
Exercise 26. Use L'Hôpital's Rule to evaluate the following limits:

(a) lim 1 cos  (b) lim ln(1 + sin x )

 !0 2 x !0 x

lim ax 1 lim ln x
(c)
x !0 x
(d)
x !1 x 1

(Hint for (c): ax = e x ln a )

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 44

4.7 Newton-Raphson Method

The Newton-Raphson Method (or simply Newton's Method ) is a widely used iterative technique

for approximating the roots of real-valued functions. It is especially eective when: the function

( ) is dierentiable, and a good initial estimate is available.

f x

The method seeks a solution to the nonlinear equation:

( ) = 0;
f x

where the solution x is called a root of the function.

The Newton-Raphson method is based on using tangent lines to iteratively get closer to the

root (see Fig. ??). Suppose we have an initial guess x0 for the root. We draw the tangent line

Figure 4.7: Illustration of the Newton-Raphson method: Tangents progressively improve the

root estimate.

to the curve y = f (x ) at the point (x0; f (x0)). The next approximation, x1 , is the point where

this tangent intersects the x -axis. This process is repeated to generate a sequence of values

that (ideally) converge to the actual root.

The tangent line at xn has the equation:

y = f (xn ) + f 0(xn )(x xn )

Setting y = 0 to nd where the tangent crosses the x -axis:
0 = f (xn ) + f 0(xn )(xn+1 xn ) ) xn+1 = xn ( )
f xn
f 0 (xn )

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 45

From the geometric idea above, we arrive at the core iteration rule:

Newton-Raphson Method:
xn+1 = xn ( )
f xn
f 0 (xn )
(4.25)

This formula renes each guess by subtracting the ratio of the function value to its derivative

at that point.

Algorithm Steps

1. Start with an initial guess x0

x1 = x0 ( )
f x0
2. Compute:
0
f (x0 )
f (xn )
3. Repeat: xn+1 = xn f 0 (xn )
4. Stop when jxn+1 xn j is suciently small

Note: The method cannot proceed if f 0 xn

( ) = 0, since this would lead to division by zero.
The Newton-Raphson method typically converges rapidly if:

jf (x )
f 00(x )j < jf 0(x )j2

This ensures the method converges quadratically (i.e., the number of correct digits roughly

doubles each iteration).

Advantages

ˆ
ˆ
Fast convergence (quadratic near the root)

ˆ
Ecient for well-behaved functions

Simple algorithmic implementation

Limitations

ˆ
ˆ
Requires a good initial guess

( )0
f 0 xn
ˆ
May diverge if guess is poor or

Not suitable for functions with discontinuities or non-dierentiability

Example 45. Find the root of ( ) = x 5 + x 2 3 using x0 = 1

f x

Solution: Dene the function and its derivative:

f x ( ) = x 5 + x 2 3; f0 x
( ) = 5x 4 + 2x

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26

Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 46

3 5

3 0

2 5

2 0

1 5

1 0

5
ro o t b e tw e e n 1 a n d 2
s in c e f ( x ) c h a n g e s s ig n

− 2 − 1 1 2 3
− 5

− 1 0

xn+1 = xn ( )
f xn
f 0 (xn )

= xn + xn2 3
xn5
5xn4 + 2xn
= xn (5xn + 25xxn 4) + 2(xxn + xn 3)
4 5 2
n n

= 4x5nx + xn + 3
5 2
4 + 2x ; for n 2 N = f0; 1; 2; : : : g
n
n

Initial guess x0 =1
x1 = 1:1428571429
x2 = 1:1192071561
x3 = 1:1183406744
x4 = 1:1183395541
x5 = 1:1183395541

and thus xr oot is 1.118339554 up to 10 decimal points.

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 47

4.8 Dierentiation of Vector Functions of a Single Variable

F (t ) and Applications to Classical Mechanics
4.8.1 Vector Functions of a Single Variable
In engineering and physics, many quantitiessuch as position, velocity, and accelerationare
naturally expressed as vector functions of a single variable, often time.

A vector function in Cartesian coordinates can be written as:

r(t ) = x (t ) ^i + y (t ) ^j + z (t ) k
^
where:

ˆ ^x (^t )^; y (t ); z (t ) t,
ˆ i; j; k
are scalar functions representing the coordinates of the particle at time

are constant unit vectors in the x -, y -, and z -directions.

The derivative of a vector function is taken by dierentiating each component separately:

dr
dt
= dd xt ^i + ddyt ^j + dd zt k^:

Key Physical Interpretations:

ˆ v(t ) = ddtr velocity vector

is the .

ˆ a(t ) = dd vt = ddt r2 acceleration vector

2
is the .

4.8.2 Application in Classical Mechanics: Particle Motion

Example 46. Motion of a particle along a space curve

A particle moves in three-dimensional space such that its position vector is:

r(t ) = (2t 2 ) ^i + (3t ) ^j + (4 sin t ) k

^ (m):

(a) Find the velocity and acceleration vectors. (b) Evaluate both at t = 2 s and compute the
speed.

Solution:

(a) Velocity: dr
v (t ) =
dt
= (4t )^i + (3) ^j + (4 cos t ) k^ (m/s):

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26

Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 48

Acceleration: dv
a(t ) =
dt
= (4)^i + (0) ^j (4 sin t ) k^ (m/s ):
2

(b) At t = 2 s:
v(2) = (8)^i + (3) ^j + [4 cos 2] k
^ (m/s);

a(2) = (4)^i + (0) ^j [4 sin 2] k^ (m/s ):

2

The speed is:

kv(2)k = 82 + 32 + (4 cos 2)2 m=s  9:432 m=s:

q

4.8.3 Another Classical Mechanics Example: Projectile Motion

In projectile motion (neglecting air resistance), the position vector is:

r(t ) = (u cos 
t ) ^i + (u sin 
t 1 2 ^

2 gt ) j
where, u is the initial speed,  is the launch angle, and g is the gravitational acceleration.

Dierentiating gives:

v(t ) = (u cos ) ^i + (u sin  gt ) ^j;

a(t ) = (0) ^i ^
g j:

This shows that the horizontal velocity is constant, while the vertical velocity changes uniformly

due to gravity.

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Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 49

Solutions to Exercises
5
Exercise 1. = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15:
X
(a) k
k =1
6
(2j + 1) = (2
2 + 1) + (2
3 + 1) + (2
4 + 1) + (2
5 + 1) + (2
6 + 1)
X
(b)
j =2
= 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 = 45: 10
= n(n + 1)(2 n + 1)
n
Write 1 + 2 +


+ 10 as k 2. k2 = 10,
2 2 2
X X
n
(c)
k =1
Using
k =1
6 with

10
k2 = 10
11
21 = 2310 = 385:
X

k =1
6 6
n
(3k + 2) = n2 (3n + 7).
X
(d) Show
k =1

1 = 3
n(n 2+ 1) +2n = 3n(n +21) + 4n = n(3n +23 + 4) = n(3n2+ 7) :

n n n
(3k +2) = 3 +2
X X X
k
k =1 k =1 k =1

(e) The arithmetic series 4 + 7 + 10 +


+ 100 can be written as

33 32
(3k + 1) (4 + 3k ):
X X
or
k =1 k =0

Number of terms: solve 4 + (n 1)
3 = 100 ) n = 33. Sum:

n
S = (a1 + an ) =
33 (4 + 100) = 33
104 = 33
52 = 1716:
2 2 2
n
(2k 1) = n2.
X
(f )
k =1

1 = 2
n(n 2+ 1)
n n n
(2k 1) = 2 = n(n + 1) = n2 :
X X X
k n n
k =1 k =1 k =1

Exercise 2. This is an arithmetic series with parameters a = 15, h = 16, and number of terms
m = 20. As we saw in Eqn. 4.5, an arithmetic series can be expressed in summation form. Since

the index starts at k = 0 in Eqn. 4.5, a sequence with m terms corresponds to n = m 1 = 19.
The last term is

b = a + nh = 15 + 19
16 = 319:
Therefore, the sum is

S = n +2 1 (a + b) = 20
2 (15 + 319) = 10
334 = 3340 :
MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26
Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 50

Exercise 3. (a) 5 + 11 + 17 + 23 + : : :
Here a = 5; h = 6; m = 15 ) n = 14. Using Equation 4.5 and noting that the index

starts at k = 0, in our problem 15 terms correspond to n = 14.

n+1 15 [2
5 + 14
6] = 15
94 = 705 :
S= [2a + nh ] =
2 2 2
(a) 1 + 1:1 + 1:2 + 1:3 + : : :
Here a = 1; h = 0:1; m = 15 ) n = 14. The last term is b = a + nh = 1+14
0:1 = 2:4.

Therefore:
n+1 15 (1 + 2:4) = 7:5
3:4 = 25:5 :
S= ( a + b) =
2 2
(a) 5 + 3 + 1 1 3 :::
Here a = 5; h = 2; m = 15 ) n = 14. Applying the formula:
n+1 15 [2
5 + 14( 2)] = 15 ( 18) = 135 :
S= [2 a + nh ] =
2 2 2
Exercise 4.
10
= 10 2
11 = 5
11 = 55
X
i
i =1

Exercise 5. (a)2 + 12 + 72 + 432 + : : :

a = 2; r = 6; m = 10 ) n = 9
a(1 r n+1 ) 1 610 = 2
610 1 = 24;186;470
S=
1 r = 2
1 6 5
(a) 1 + 1:1 + 1:21 + 1:331 + : : :

a = 1; r = 1:1; m = 10 ) n = 9

S=
1 1 :110
= 1:110 1
= 10(1 :110 1)  15:9374
1 1:1 0 :1
(a) 2
1 1 1
2 + 8 32 + : : :
a = 2; r = 14 ; m = 10 ) n = 9

2(1 ( 41 )10) 2(1 41 ) 8  1 8 1

= 5 1 410 = 5 1 1;048;576  1:599998474
  
S= = 10

1 ( 41 ) 5
4
Exercise 6. This is a geometric series with a = 2 1 = 12 , r = 2, and a total of 9 terms (from
j = 1 to j = 7).

a(1 r n+1 )
1 (1 29 )
S= ; n=8= 2 = 1 (512 1) = 511 = 255:5
1 r 1 2 2 2
Exercise 7.
f (x +
x ) f (x )
f0 x
( ) =
lim
x !0
x
=
lim (x +
x )2 x 2
x !0
x
=
lim 2x
x + (
x )2
x !0
x
=
lim
x !0
(2x +
x )
As
x ! 0, 2x +
x ! 2x , so f 0(x ) = 2x .
MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26
Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 51

Exercise 8. (a)
px = x 1=3
3

(d 1
x 1=3 ) = x 2=3
dx 3
2x u = 2x , v = 4 + x , then:
(b)
4+x Let

= v
u v 2 u
v = (4 + x(4)(2)
d
u  0 0 2x (1) = 8
dx v + x) 2 (4 + x )2
(c) (t 2 + 5)4 Let u = t 2 + 5, then:
d du
(u 4 ) = 4u 3
= 4(t 2 + 5)3
2t = 8t (t 2 + 5)3
dt dt
(d) (x 2 + 3) sin 3x Use the product rule:

d
dx
= (x 2 + 3)
ddx (sin 3x ) + sin 3x
ddx (x 2 + 3)
= (x 2 + 3)(3 cos 3x ) + 2x sin 3x
(e) (3x 2 + 2x + 1) cos x Again, product rule:

= (6x + 2) cos x (3x 2 + 2x + 1) sin x

(f ) tan(1 + x 2) Let u = 1 + x 2, then:
d du
(tan u ) = sec2 (u )
= sec2(1 + x 2)
2x = 2x sec2(1 + x 2)
dx dx
2x + 3
x 4 + 5x+6
(g) Use the quotient rule:

(x 4 + 5x + 6)(2) (2x + 3)(4x 3 + 5) = 6x 4 12x 3 3

(x 4 + 5x + 6)2 (x 4 + 5x + 6)2
(h) e 5x Chain rule with u = 5x :

d du
(eu) = eu
= 5e 5x
dx dx
(i) tan 1x
d
(tan 1 x) = 1
dx 1 + x2
(j) sin 1(x 2) Let u = x 2, then:
d
(sin 1 u) = p 1
du
= p 2x
dx 1 u2 d x 1 x4
Exercise 9.
d d d
(3y 2 + sin y ) = (3y 2) + (sin y )
dx dx dx

Apply the chain rule:

= 3
2y
dd yx + cos y
dd yx = (6y + cos y ) dd yx

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26
Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 52

Exercise 10. First derivative:

y0 = ddx (x 6 + 3 sin 2x ) = 6x 5 + 6 cos 2x

Second derivative:

y 00 = ddx (6x 5 + 6 cos 2x ) = 30x 4 12 sin 2x

Third derivative:

y 000 = ddx (30x 4 12 sin 2x ) = 120x 3 24 cos 2x

Exercise 11.
y = e 3x ) y 0 = 3e 3x ; y 00 = 9e 3x ; y (3) = 27e 3x ; y (4) = 81e 3x = 34e 3x
Thus, the general formula is:

y (n) = 3n e 3x ; for n 0
Exercise 12. = ln(cos x ) Use chain rule:
(a) y

dy
= 1
( sin x ) = tan x
dx cos x
(b) y = tan 1 (sin x ) Chain rule and derivative of inverse tangent:

dy
= 1
cos x = cos x
dx 1 + sin2 x 1 + sin2 x
5
x
= 1 +x x , then:

(c) y = 1+x Let u

dy
dx
= 5u 4
dd ux
and:
du
dx
= (1 + (1
x )(1) x (1)
+ x) 2 = 1
(1 + x )2
So,
4

(1 +1 x )2 = (1 5+x x )6
dy

x 4
dx
=5 1+x
Exercise 13. (a) y = ln x Successive derivatives:

y0 = x1 ; y 00 = x12 ; y 000 = x23 ; y (4) = x64 ; :::

The pattern is:

d ny
dxn
= ( 1)n 1
(n 1)!
x1n
(b) y =e 3x +4

y0 = 3e 3x +4 ; y 00 = 9e 3x +4 ; y (3) = 27e 3x +4 ; : : :

The pattern is:

d ny
dxn
= ( 1)n
3n
e 3x +4

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26

Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 53

Exercise 14. y = x sin x Take logs: ln y = sin x
ln x Dierentiate both sides:

1
d y = cos x
ln x +
y dx

Multiply both sides by y = x sin x :

dy
cos x
ln x + sin x
 

dx
= x sin x x

Exercise 15 (Method 1: Logarithmic dierentiation) . For x > 0, take natural logs:

ln y = ln x
px

=
px ln x :
Dierentiate both sides with respect to x:

1 d y = d px ln x
= lnpx + px
1 :
y dx dx 2 x x

Therefore,
lnpx +
px  px  ln x 1 = x px ln xp+ 2 :
dy
p p
 

dx
=y 2 x x
=x 2 x + x 2 x
px px ln x
[Method 2: Exponential re-write] Write x =e for x > 0. Then

dy d
= dx
 p
e x ln x
 p
= e x ln x d
px ln x
= x px  lnpx + px  = x px ln xp+ 2 :
dx dx 2 x x 2 x
dy
Exercise 16. Find given that
dx
x3 + y = 1 + y 3:
Dierentiate both sides with respect to x:

3x 2 + dd yx = 0 + 3y 2
dd yx :
Rearranging:

= 1 33xy 2 :
dy dy 2
dx
(1 3y 2) = 3x 2 ) dx

Exercise 17.

dy
Given y =3 x2
, nd
dx
: Rewrite using exponential:

dy
y =e x 2 ln 3
; ) dx
=e x 2 ln 3

( 2x ln 3):
So,
dy
dx
= 2x ln 3
3 x2
:

Exercise 18.

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26

Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 54

dy
Find
dx
when t = 1, given
x = 1 + t 5; y = t + t 2 + t 3:
Dierentiate both with respect to t:

dx dy
dt
= 5t 4; dt
= 1 + 2t + 3t 2 :
So,

= 1 + 25tt + 3t
dy
dy 2
dx
= dt
dx 4 :
dt

At t = 1:
dy
dx
= 1 + 25 + 3 = 65 :

Exercise 19. Treat y as the independent variable and x = x (y ). Write x0 = dd yx .

(a) Dierentiate implicitly:

d
x 4y 2 x 3y + 2x y 3 = 0:


dy
Using the product rule on each term:

(4x 3x 0)y 2 + x 4(2y ) (3x 2x 0)y + x 3 + 2 x 0y 3 + x (3y 2) = 0:

   

Group the x0 terms:

x0 4x 3y 2 3x 2y + 2y 3 + 2x 4y x3 + 6x y 2 = 0:

Hence
dx
= 2x 4 y x 3 + 6 x y 2 :
dy 4x 3y 2 3x 2y + 2y 3
(b) Start from y sec x = x tan y . Dierentiate both sides w.r.t. y:

d
sec x = ddy x tan y



y :
dy

Product/chain rules give

sec x + y (sec x tan x ) x 0 = x0 tan y + x sec2 y :

Collect x0 terms:

x0 y sec x tan x tan y = x sec2 y sec x :

Therefore
dx x sec2 y sec x
dy
= y sec x tan x tan y :

Exercise 20.

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26

Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 55

Find the max/min/inection points of:

(a) y = x33 x2
2 + 10 First derivative:
y0 = x2 x; set y0 = 0 ) x (x 1) = 0 ) x = 0; 1:
Second derivative:

= 2x 1: y 00

At x = 0: y =
00 1 ) local maximum. At x = 1: y 00 = 1 ) local minimum. Point of

inexion: solve y = 0 ) x = .
00 1
2
(b) y = x 2 + 250
x

y 0 = 2x
250 ; set y 0 = 0 ) 2x 3 = 250 ) x = p125 = 5: 3

x2

Second derivative:

y 00 = 2 + 500
x3
> 0 ) local minimum at x = 5:

The second derivative is:

y 00 = 2 + 500
x3
p
p= 0 ) x = 250 ) x = 250.
y 00 y 00
Set
3 3
Since changes sign across this point,

x = 250 = 6:3 is a point of inection.

3

Exercise 21. Find greatest and least values of ( ) = x (x 6)2 on 1  x  9:

f x Expand:

f x( ) = x (x 2 12x + 36) = x 3 12x 2 + 36x

First derivative:

f0 x( ) = 3x 2 24x + 36 = 3(x 2 8x + 12) = 3(x 2)(x 6)

Critical points: x = 2; 6. Check endpoints and these:

f (1) = 25; f (2) = 32; f (6) = 0; f (9) = 81:

Greatest value = 81, least value = 0.
Exercise 22. We start with the derivatives of sin x at x = 0:

f x ( ) = sin x ;
f 0 (x ) = cos x ; f 0 (0) = 1;
f 00 (x ) = sin x ; f 00 (0) = 0;
f (3) x
( ) = cos x ; f (3)(0) = 1;
f (4) (x ) = sin x ; f (4) (0) = 0;
f (5) (x ) = cos x ; f (5) (0) = 1:

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26

Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 56

Substitute into the Maclaurin series formula:

1 (n)
f (0) x3 x5 x7 x9
sin x = =x 3! + 5! 7! + 9! +



n
X
x
n=0
n !
and
1
sin x =
X ( 1)n x 2n+1
n=0
(2n + 1)!
Exercise 23. Take derivatives of ( ) directly:
f x

( ) = ln(1 + e x );
f x

f 0 (x ) =
ex
; f 0 (0) = ;
1
1+e x 2
f 00 (x ) =
e x
(1 + e x
) e x

e x
= ex
f 00 (0) = 14 ;
(1 + e x )2 (1 + e x )2 ;
f (3) (x ) =


; f (3) (0) = 0;

f (4) (x ) =


; f (4) (0) =

1:
8
So the Maclaurin expansion is:

ln(1 + e x ) = ln(2) + 12 x + 18 x 2 384

1 x4 +

Note: The odd derivatives cancel in some cases due to symmetry, so every term must be

computed with care.

Exercise 24. We expand ( ) = e x=2 about x = 2 using the Taylor series formula:
f x

00
( ) = f (2) + f 0(2)(x 2) + f 2!(2) (x 2)2 + f 3!(2) (x 2)3 +



(3)
f x

Finding derivatives:

( ) = e x=2;
f x ( ) = 21 e x=2;
f0 x f 00 x ( ) = 14 e x=2; f (3) x ( ) = 18 e x=2
Evaluate at x = 2:
f (2) = e; f0 (2) = 21 e; f 00 (2) = 14 e; f (3) (2) = 18 e
So the Taylor expansion becomes:

e x=2  e + 21 e (x 2) + 18 e (x 2)2 + 48
1 e (x 2)3

Exercise 25. We use the general Taylor series formula about x = a:

sin x = sin a + cos a(x a ) sin2!a (x a 2
) cos a (x
3! ) +



a 3

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26

Unit 4. Dierentiation and Series 57

This pattern continues as:

1
sin x =
X ( 1)n
sin(2n)(a)
(x a 2n+1
)
n=0
(2n + 1)!
Equivalently, writing the derivatives explicitly:

1 (n)
f (a )
sin x = (x )n
X
a
n!
n=0

where ( ) follows the cycle: sin a; cos a; sin a; cos a; : : :

f (n) a

Exercise 26. We apply L'Hôpital's Rule to each limit:

(a) lim 1 cos 

 !0 2
0; lim sin  = 1
Since
0 apply L'Hôpital's Rule:
 !0 2 2
(b) lim ln(1 + sin x )
x !0 x
cos x
0; lim 1 =1
1+sin x
=
Since
0 apply L'Hôpital's Rule:
x !0 1 1
(c) lim a x
1
x !0 x

a x
=e x ln a
; ) xlim e x ln a 1 = lim ln a
e x ln a = ln a
Let
!0 x x !0 1
lim ln x
!1 x 1
(d)
x

0; 1 1 =1
Since
0 apply L'Hôpital's Rule: lim x
x !1 1
= 1

MAT1044 Engineering Mathematics 2025/26