Conduct Basic Survey

UNIT 1 SURVEY TECHNIQUES

1.1 Surveying

What is a term Survey? What do you know about surveying activities?

Surveying or Land surveying is the process of measuring and mapping the physical features and boundaries of a piece of land.

Topographic surveys involve mapping the natural and man-made features of a land area, such as hills, valleys, water bodies, buildings, roads, and
vegetation.

Surveyors use techniques like total stations, GPS, and laser scanning to measure elevations, distances, and angles to create accurate topographic
maps. These maps are essential for land development, urban planning, and engineering design.

Land title surveys, also known as cadastral surveys, involve determining the legal boundaries and ownership of land parcels. Land title surveys
ensure that land ownership is accurately recorded and provide a basis for property rights and legal disputes.

Remote sensing and satellite imagery continue to improve and become cheaper, allowing more common place use. Prominent new technologies
include three-dimensional (3D) scanning and lidar-based topographical surveys.

The main objectives of surveying

• To determine the relative position of various points above, on, or beneath the surface of the earth

• To take the linear measurements and angular measurements between various points

• To prepare the plans and maps i.e. for the representation of a measured plot of the area on a horizontal plane

Uses of surveying The important uses of surveying can be listed as follows:

• It is essential in the preparation of the topographical maps indicating the forests, hills, and other topographical features of an area.

• It is vital for the planning, designing, and construction of infrastructures such as roads, bridges, pipeline systems, etc.

• It is necessary for the preparation of cadastral maps for demarcating the boundaries and property lines.

• It is also necessary for the planning and fixing of navigation routes

• Develop data banks of land-use and natural resources information which aid in managing our environment

• To lay out irrigation and drainage lay out

• To lay out the physical soil and water conservation structure

1.1.2 Basic principles of survey

The accuracy and reliability of surveying results are based on a set of fundamental principles. Surveying is based upon a number of principles but
the first two the fundamental principles and the others three are which can be listed as follows:

1. Working from whole to part

• According to the first principle, the whole survey area is first enclosed by main stations and main survey lines.

• The area is then divided into a number of divisions by forming well-conditioned triangles

• As the name itself implies, the survey work must be carried out from whole to part. This means that when an area is to be surveyed, first of all, a
system of control points is established such that it covers the entire area with a higher degree of precision. After this, the minor control points and
details are further established with a lesser degree of precision

• The main survey lines are measured very accurately with precise survey instruments.

• During measurement, if there is any error, then it will not affect the whole work, but if the reverse process is followed then the minor error in
measurement will be magnified

2. Location of point by measurement from two points of reference

• To locate a new station by at least two measurements (Linear or angular measurement or by both in surveying) from fixed reference points.

• If two control points are established first, then a new station can be located by linear measurement.

• Let A and B are control points, a new point C can be established

• Following are the methods of locating point C from such reference points A &B.

• The distance AB can be measured accurately and the relative positions of the point can be then plotted on the sheet to some scale.

3. Consistency of work

• Another important principle of surveying is the consistency of work.

• It must be noted that keeping consistency in the method, instrument, reading and noting observations helps to gain the desired level of accuracy

4. Independent check

• According to this principle, every measurement that is taken in the field must be rechecked by adopting a suitable method of independent field
tests and observations so that any mistake if present is not passed without notice

5. Accuracy required

• According to this principle of surveying; the proper method and instrument must be used for the survey work on the basis of the degree of
accuracy required

By following these basic principles, surveyors can ensure the accuracy, reliability, and consistency of their surveying work. These principles form
the foundation of surveying practices and contribute to the production of accurate and precise survey data.

1.1.3 Surveying methods

Here are some key aspects of natural resource management surveying:

1. Resource Mapping and Inventory: Natural resource management surveys involve mapping and inventorying natural resources within a specific
area. Surveyors use techniques such as aerial photography, satellite imagery, and remote sensing to capture detailed information about the
location, extent, and characteristics of resources. This information is crucial for resource planning, allocation, and management.

2. Forest Surveys: Forest surveys are conducted to assess the health, composition, and productivity of forested areas. Surveyors measure tree
species, density, height, and volume, as well as factors such as forest cover, understory vegetation, and soil conditions. Forest surveys help in
sustainable forest management, timber harvesting planning, and conservation efforts.

3. Water Resource Surveys: Water resource surveys involve measuring and monitoring water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and reservoirs.
Surveyors collect data on water levels, flow rates, water quality parameters, and sedimentation. This information is used for water resource
planning, flood management, water supply systems, and environmental impact assessments.

4. Agricultural Surveys: Agricultural surveys focus on assessing agricultural land and its productivity. Surveyors measure factors such as soil
types, fertility, slope, and drainage patterns. They also identify and map agricultural practices, such as crop types, irrigation systems, and land use
changes. Agricultural surveys support land management, crop planning, soil conservation, and precision farming techniques.

5. Wildlife Habitat Surveys: Wildlife habitat surveys are conducted to assess and monitor habitats for various species. Surveyors measure
vegetation cover, food availability, water sources, and other habitat features. These surveys help in wildlife conservation, habitat restoration, and
the identification of areas for protected reserves.

6. Environmental Impact Assessments: Natural resource management surveys play a crucial role in environmental impact assessments (EIAs) for
development projects. Surveyors collect baseline data on natural resources, assess potential impacts, and propose mitigation measures. EIAs
ensure that development activities are carried out in an environmentally responsible manner, minimizing negative impacts on natural resources.

Primary methods of surveying

1. Plane surveying method

Plane surveying is the one in which the earth’s surface is considered as a plane and the earth’s curvature is ignored. In such a type of surveying, a
line joining any two stations is considered as a straight line. The triangle formed by joining any three points is considered as a plane triangle and
the angles of the triangle are also considered as plain angles. The lengths of the triangle’s sides are measured using Trilateration. A surveyor
carries out surveying for small places with less than 250 km2area.

• It is a lower surveying
• It extended over small areas

It used for engineering work

2. Geodetic surveying method

Geodetic Surveying is the method in which the earth’s curvature is taken into consideration. It is generally extended over much larger areas. The
line that joins any two stations is to be considered a curved line. The triangle formed by any three points is considered to be spherical and the
angles of the triangle are also taken into account as spherical angles. Geodetic surveyingis conducted by the National Survey and Mapping
Organization, Survey of India Department and land surveyors carry out surveying for a larger area exceeding 250km2.

• It is a higher surveying

• It required higher degree of precision or accuracy

• It extended over larger area

Based on the aim to undertake Surveying there are different methods of surveying

•Control Survey: Made to establish the horizontal and vertical positions of arbitrary points.

•Boundary Survey: Made to determine the length and direction of land lines and to establish the position of these lines on the ground.

•Topographic Survey: Made to gather data to produce a topographic map showing the configuration of the terrain and the location of natural and
man-made objects.

•Mining Survey: Made to control, locate and map underground and surface works related to mining operations.

•Construction Survey: Made to layout, locate and monitor public and private engineering works.

•Route Survey: Refers to that control, topographic, and construction surveys necessary for the location and construction of highways, railroads,
canals, transmission lines, and pipelines

Other Methods of Surveying

I. Based on Object

1. Geological Surveying Method

It maps out features of the physical landscape, like rivers, valleys, mountains, etc. Satellite data holds ample significance for geological
surveying, and engineers seldom use this data or aerial images to help them in their completion of work.

2. Mine Surveying Method

It includes both surface and underground surveys and is conducted for the exploration of mineral deposits and to guide tunneling along with other
operations associated with mining

3. Military surveying Method

It holds a lot of significance and critical applications in the military. Aerial surveys are conducted and it is conducted to locate strategic positions
and enemy locations for the objective of army operations.

I. Based on Instruments used

1. Chain and Compass surveying Method

Chain and compass surveying is a traditional method used in land surveying to measure distances and angles for mapping and establishing
boundaries. It relies on two main instruments: the chain and the compass.

The chain is a measuring instrument consisting of a series of linked metal rods or tapes. It is used to measure distances on the ground. The chain
is laid out along the survey line, and the distance is determined by counting the number of chain lengths or links between two points.

The compass is used to measure angles. It consists of a magnetic needle that aligns with the Earth's magnetic field, indicating the direction of
north. By sighting through the compass, surveyors can determine the angle between two lines or the bearing of a line, which is the angle
measured clockwise from the north.

2. Plane table surveying Method

Plane table surveying is a method used in land surveying to create accurate maps and plans in the field. It involves the use of a plane table, which
is a portable drawing board mounted on a tripod. The plane table is equipped with a surveyor's compass and an alidade, which is a telescopic
sight used for measuring angles.

Plane table surveying is particularly useful in areas with limited access or uneven terrain where other surveying methods may be impractical. It
allows for real-time mapping and visualization of the survey data, enabling immediate decision-making in the field. However, it requires skilled
surveyors to interpret the observations and accurately record the data. While plane table surveying has been largely replaced by modern surveying
techniques such as GPS and total stations, it still finds applications in certain situations, such as small-scale mapping, reconnaissance surveys,
and educational purposes.

Equipment Used in Plane Table Survey

General equipment used for conducting plane table survey are;

• Plane table

• Alidade for sighting (telescopic or simple)

• Plumb bob and plumb fork

• Compass

• Spirit level

• Chain

• Ranging rods

• Tripod

• Drawing sheet and drawing tools

• Paper clips or screws

3. Theodolite surveying Method

In theodolite survey, the horizontal angles are observed with an alidade and measured with the theodolite instrument with more precision than a
compass and the linear dimensions are taken with chains or tapes

I. Based on Methods

1. Triangulation Surveying Method

The Triangulation method is a basic surveying method and is adopted when the surveyed area is large. The entire area is divided into a
triangulation of networks by the surveyor.

2. Traversing Surveying Method

Traversing is a circuit of survey lines that may be open or closed. When the linear measurements are carried out with a chain and a tape and the
directions or horizontal angles are computed with a compass or a theodolite respectively it is called traversing

1.1.4 Preparing and applying surveying techniques

Here's a brief overview of preparing for and applying surveying techniques:

1. Planning

2. Research: Gather relevant information about the survey area,

3. Equipment:

4. Control Points: Establish control points on the survey site to provide a reference framework.

Control points are accurately measured and marked positions that serve as a basis for all subsequent measurements. They are typically identified
using GPS coordinates or by using established benchmarks.
5. Fieldwork: Carry out the fieldwork by systematically collecting measurements and data. Depending on the survey type, techniques may include
traversing, leveling, GPS positioning, or remote sensing. Follow standard procedures, take multiple measurements to minimize errors, and record
all relevant information.

6. Data Processing:

7. Quality Control:

8. Reporting:

9. Legal Considerations:

10. Continuous Learning:

By following these steps, surveyors can prepare and apply surveying techniques effectively, ensuring accurate and reliable results for various
applications.

Measurement in Surveying

In surveying, there are several types of measurements that are commonly taken:

1. Linear Measurements:

2. Angular Measurements:

3. Leveling:

4. GPS Measurements: Global Positioning System (GPS) technology has revolutionized surveying by providing accurate and precise positioning
information. GPS receivers use signals from satellites to determine the latitude, longitude, and elevation of points on the Earth's surface.

5. Remote Sensing: Remote sensing involves collecting data about the Earth's surface without direct physical contact. It utilizes aerial
photography, satellite imagery, LiDAR, and other technologies to obtain measurements and create detailed maps.

Distance measurement

1. Tape Measure: This method involves using a steel or fiberglass tape measure to directly measure distances. It is suitable for short distances and
provides reasonably accurate results. The tape is stretched between two points, and the measurement is read from the tape.

2. EDM (Electronic Distance Measurement): EDM utilizes electronic devices to measure distances accurately. There are different types of EDM
instruments, including theodolites, totalstations, and laser rangefinders. These instruments emit electromagnetic waves or laser pulses, which
bounce off a reflector placed on the target point. The instrument measures the time taken for the wave or pulse to return, and based on the speed
of light, calculates the distance.

3. GPS (Global Positioning System): GPS is a satellite-based navigation system widely used for distance measurement in surveying. GPS
receivers receive signals from multiple satellites and use the time delay of each signal to calculate distances. By comparing the signals from
different satellites, the receiver can determine its precise location and measure distances between points.

4. Trigonometric Methods: Trigonometry can be applied to measure distances indirectly. This method involves measuring angles from known
points using theodolites or total stations. By applying trigonometric principles, the distances between points can be calculated based on the
measured angles and known distances.

5. Chain Surveying: Chain surveying is an older technique that uses a chain or tape to measure distances. The chain is a series of connected links
with a known length, usually 20 meters. By counting the number of chain lengths required to measure a distance, the total distance can be
determined.

6. Pacing: Pacing is a basic method of distance estimation, where a surveyor walks and counts the number of steps taken to cover a distance. By
multiplying the number of steps by the average step length, an approximate distance can be calculated. However, this method is less accurate
compared to other techniques.

Angle measurement

1. Compass and Magnetic Needle: This is one of the oldest methods of angle measurement. A compass or magnetic needle is used to determine
the direction of a line relative to magnetic north. The angle is measured by aligning the compass needle with the desired line and reading the
angle directly from the compass dial.

2. Theodolite: The theodolite is a precise instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angles. It consists of a telescope mounted on a
rotating base with graduated circles. The procedure for angle measurement with a theodolite involves the following steps:
a. Setting up: The theodolite is placed on a tripod and leveled using the built-in leveling screws.

b. Orientation: The instrument is oriented by sighting a known point or a reference mark on a distant object. This establishes the initial reference
direction.

c. Horizontal Angle Measurement: The telescope is rotated horizontally, and the desired line or point is sighted through the telescope. The
horizontal angle is read from the horizontal circle or circle vernier

d. Vertical Angle Measurement: The telescope is tilted vertically, and the line or point of interest is sighted. The vertical angle is read from the
vertical circle or circle vernier.

e. Repeatability: To ensure accuracy, multiple observations of the angles are taken and averaged.

3. Total Station: A total station is an advanced instrument that combines electronic distance measurement (EDM) and angle measurement
capabilities. It integrates a theodolite with an EDM, enabling simultaneous measurement of angles and distances. The procedure for angle
measurement with a total station is similar to that of a theodolite.

4. Digital Level: Digital levels are used to measure vertical angles accurately. They are equipped with electronic sensors that measure the
inclination of the instrument. The procedure involves setting up the digital level, sighting the point of interest, and reading the vertical angle from
the instrument's display.

Before starting to conduct surveying we have to gathering all information and relevant factors required Gathering information may relate to:

• local inhabitants

• type of terrain or features of the route

• access and exit routes

• natural protection or shelter

• land management and legislative requirements guide books

Relevant factors may relate to:

• types of terrain and gradient

• weather conditions

• obstacles

• hazards and access to required resources and facilities

• distance

• estimated travelling time magnetic bearings

The Global Positioning System (GPS):

• GPS is a positioning system based on a network of satellites that continuously transmit coded information.

• The information transmitted from the satellites can be interpreted by receivers to precisely identify locations on earth by measuring distances
from the satellites

• As one of the first satellite positioning systems, GPS has become integral to work done worldwide, including precision agriculture, autonomous
vehicles, marine or aerial surveying

• Now the time of technology, the trainee should understand how to use, handle, open, closed, find the five page the GPS for measurement use

• GPS used for distance measurement, to read the location, area measurement, mapping the measured area and for navigation purposes

The nominal GPS operational constellation consists of roughly 24 satellites and working access at least 4 [Link] of the information needed
to operate you the device is found on the five main pages:

1. The GPS information page: displays your speed, elevation, the estimated accuracy, receiver status, satellite locations, satellite signal strength,
the date, the time and GPS receivers current location
2. The map page: guides you to your destination with a graphic compass display and a bearing or course pointer

3. The compass page: select the number of data fields that appear on the compass page

4. The high way page: for navigating when a straight line course can be followed

5. The active rout: displays the rout information that you are navigating

By pressing the PAGE button to navigate through the main pages and then pressing MENU to access the menu for these pages and use the rocker
and the ENTER button to select the option you want to change. Press MENU twice to access the main menu

Operating GPS

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that provides location and time information anywhere on Earth. The
system is operated and maintained by the United States government. Here are the basic operating procedures of GPS:

1. Satellite Constellation: GPS consists of a network of satellites orbiting the Earth. The satellite constellation is designed to provide global
coverage. Currently, there are at least 24 operational satellites in the GPS constellation.

2. Satellite Signal Transmission: Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts signals that contain precise timing information and orbital data.
These signals are transmitted using radio frequencies in the microwave L-band.

3. Receiver Acquisition: GPS receivers, such as those found in smartphones or dedicated navigation devices, receive the signals transmitted by
the satellites. When a receiver is turned on, it starts searching for GPS signals from multiple satellites.

4. Signal Measurement: Once a GPS receiver has acquired signals from multiple satellites, it measures the time it takes for the signals to travel
from the satellites to the receiver. By knowing the speed of light, the receiver can calculate the distance between itself and each satellite.

5. Trilateration: GPS receivers use trilateration to determine their position on the Earth's surface. Trilateration involves intersecting spheres or
circles to find the receiver's location. In GPS, the spheres are represented by the distances from the receiver to each satellite.

6. Position Calculation: Using the measured distances to multiple satellites, along with the known positions of those satellites, the GPS receiver
calculates its own position using geometric algorithms. This calculation takes into account factors such as satellite geometry, atmospheric delays,
and errors in the satellite's clock.

7. Position Output: Once the receiver has calculated its position, it can display the latitude, longitude, and sometimes altitude to the user. This
information is typically shown on a screen or map display

8. Continual Position Updates: GPS receivers continually update their position by receiving new signals from the satellites and recalculating their
position. This allows users to track their movement in [Link]'s worth noting that GPS operating procedures may vary slightly depending on
the specific device or application being used. However, the basic principles described above are common to most GPS systems.

The common types of surveying techniques

Trilateration

Trilateration is a geometric technique used to determine the position or location of an object by measuring the distances between that object and
at least three known reference points or landmarks. It is commonly used in various fields, including surveying, navigation, and wireless
communication.

Trilateration works based on the principle that if the distances from an unknown point to three known points are known, the position of the
unknown point can be determined by intersecting circles or spheres centered at the known points.

Trilateration is widely used in applications like GPS (Global Positioning System), where satellites in space act as the known reference points, and
receivers on the ground measure the distances to the satellites to determine the receiver's position. It is also used in wireless communication
systems to locate mobile devices based on the signal strength from multiple base stations

➢ To form a triangle to additional distances are measured from two terminal points of the base side to the third point to fix its position

➢ It is surveying techniques; survey area covered by a network of triangles in which only sides of triangles are measured

➢ It is a method of surveying in which the area is divided into network of triangles and the sides of the various triangles are measured directly in
the field with a chain or tape without including angular measurements

➢ It is the simplest kind of surveying and is most suitable when the area to be surveyed is small in extent and is fairly level and open with some
details
Measuring horizontal distance

➢ Horizontal distance measurement involves the demarcation of the line to be measured. This is done by fixing ranging poles at the ends of the
line

➢ To keep the line during taping, one has to establish intermediate points on the line between its end points with ranging poles. Those points can
be established by ranging out

➢ The objective of ranging out to make the survey line straight before measuring the horizontal distance

➢ Ranging out done first fix ranging poles at the two end points of the survey line and get an assistant to hold another pole near some
intermediate point C to make all the three rage pole seen as one

➢ Measuring of horizontal distance on gentile slope (inclination of the ground less than 30 ) is directly the meter stretch on the ground and above
the ground for obstacle between the two range pole

➢ This is because on the gentile slope horizontal distance equal to surface distance

A. Tapping on slopping ground using trigonometric method

➢ On sloping ground, horizontal distance (HD) of a survey line can be determined by using trigonometric method The inclination of the ground
is observed by a clinometer and measuring the surface distance (SD) using measuring tape and the measurement along the ground is reduced by
the calculation below(figure 2.5)HD = SD*Cos

B. Direct measurement of horizontal distance (tape-breaking)

➢ On sloping ground, direct measurement of horizontal distance can be conducted using stepping (tape-breaking) technique

➢ If there are breaks in slope along the survey line as shown in Figure below, slope and distance measurements are taken for each slope class
separately using water level, string and measuring tape

➢ Then, the corresponding horizontal distance will be computed for each class (HD1, HD2, & HD3)

➢ The sum of the horizontal distances is equal to the horizontal distance between the end points of the survey line (HD). Therefore, HD= HD1 +
HD2 + HD3

Triangulation is a geometric technique used to determine the location or position of an object by measuring angles from known reference points.
It involves forming triangles between the object being located and the reference points, hence the term "triangulation."In triangulation, at least
two known reference points, often called "stations," are needed. From each station, the angles between the object and the reference points are
measured. These angles can be measured using instruments such as theodolites, total stations, or even by visual observations.

Once the angles are measured, the next step is to calculate the unknown position. This is done by drawing lines or rays from each station at the
measured angles and determining where these lines intersect.

Triangulation provides a reliable and accurate method for determining positions, especially when direct distance measurements are not feasible or
practical. However, it requires precise angle measurements and careful consideration of measurement errors and uncertainties

Advanced techniques and instruments, such as GPS and electronic theodolites, have greatly improved the accuracy and efficiency of
triangulation-based positioning systems.

➢ The principle is that, given a base if two angle of a triangle is known it is possible define triangle

➢ Thus, if a base side is established, and two angle with a transit, compass or any angle measuring equipment are measured from a terminals of
the base side to a third point whose position is required, the position of the third point can be fixed

➢ Compass is an instrument in which a magnetic needle assumes a more or less definite line of reference from which angular direction lines
known as bearings can be measured

Observing the bearing of a line

➢ Bearings are horizontal angles measured from the north and south points of a reference meridians, and may be true or magnetic bearings
accordingly. The axis of the compass needle serves as a reference line known as a magnetic meridian, or n and s line.

➢ Bearing is the direction of any line with respect the given meridian measured with fixed line of reference.

➢ Every line has two bearing observed at each end of a line (Figure below)
✓ Fore bearing (FB): the bearing measured in the direction of the progress of the survey line. Used for map development

✓ Back bearing (BB): It is the bearing in the opposite reverse direction. Used for check compass measurement is correct or not

✓ Therefore, the calculation for to check the compass measurement correct or not is FB equal to BB plus or minus 1800

The two modes of observing bearings are

• Whole-circle bearings (W.C.B) or simply azimuths are angles measured clockwise from the north point from 00

to 3600

• The graduated circles of Silva compasses are divided in the whole-circle system, 00 to 3600 clockwise, which are read directly

• Reduced bearings (R.B) are horizontal angels measured to the east or to the west from the north or south point, in either direction from 00 to
900 the angular value being preceded by the initial letter N or S, and followed by the terminal letter E or W. They are read directly on circles
divided in the quadrant system, 00 to 900

Traverse

A traverse is a series of connected lines whose lengths and directions are to be measured and the process of surveying to find such measurements
is known as traversing

• In general, chains are used to measure length and compass or theodolite are used to measure the direction of traverse lines

• The types of traverse and methods of traversing are discussed in this article

• It is the technique used defines position of fielded points by combination of distance and angular measurement

• Distance along a line between successive points are measured at each point where the traverse change directions, an angular measurement is
taken

• It is travels consist of service of straight lines in which position is determined by a combination of angles and distance measurement between
successive lines joining control stations

• When you survey by traversing, you need to make measurements to find information on:

✓ the distance between traverse stations

✓ the direction of each traverse section

Type of traverse

A. Open travels: - is a travels start from known point and ends at unknown point. Since open, there is no computational check on measurement

B. Closed travels: A traverse is said to be closed traverse when the traverse formed a closed circuit as shown in the figure. In this case, both
starting and terminating points of the traverse coincide with each other. It is suitable for the survey of boundaries of ponds, sports grounds, forests
etc

Choosing the route of a traverse

When selecting the route a traverse will follow:

• Make each straight section of the traverse as long as possible (40-100 m)

• Make the traverse sections as equal in length as possible

• Avoid very short traverse sections - under 25 m long

• Choose lines which can be measured easily

• Choose lines along routes which avoid obstacles such as heavy vegetation, rocks, standing crops and property

Methods of Traversing

The three common methods of traversing as follows:

A. Chain Traversing
• Chain traversing is done by taking linear measurements only.

• Hence, chain or tape is enough for chain traversing.

• The angle between the adjacent traverse lines is measured using the chain angles concept.

• Chain traversing is performed in areas such as ponds etc. where it is difficult to adopt triangulation.

• The chain angles concept is nothing but finding the angle between two adjacent sides by establishing the third side using tie stations

• This angle between the sides can also be fixed by establishing a chord of known length between the sides

B. Compass Traversing

• In the case of compass traversing, both linear and angular measurements of traverse lines are taken by using chain and prismatic compass
respectively

• Both fore bearing and back bearings are measured and required corrections for local attraction are applied

• You need to survey traverse AF then the first, walk along the traverse. Mark its course by placing high stakes about every 50 m. If necessary,
place additional stakes at important traverse stations, such as where the traverse changes direction, where hills or other changes in elevation
reduce visibility between traverse stations, or where there are particular landscape features such as a road, a river, or rocks

• Start traversing at the first point A. Remove the ranging pole and stand at point A. With the magnetic compass, measure the azimuth of the line
joining point A to point B, the next visible point. Point A becomes station 1. The direction you measure from there to

point B, or station 2, is called a foresight (FS) because you are measuring forward (Figure Below.)

• Replace the ranging pole at station 1 (point A) and move to station 2, while measuring the horizontal distance AB by pacing or chaining. Like
this continue measure all the survey station distance and direction

C. Theodolite Traversing

• In the case of theodolite traversing, the linear measurements are done by using chain or stadia method and angular measurements are done by
theodolite

• Using theodolite, the magnetic bearing of the first traverse line is measured and from that magnetic bearing of other sides are calculated

• This method is very accurate compared to other methods

D. Offsetting

• This is another way of distance measurement where offset is used to fix points withreference to base lines

• Offset often used to with trilateration traversing and to locate position of details inside triangulation systems

• Offset are lateral measurements made from known points on the survey lines to point not falling on the survey lines. Positions of details inside
the frame work are defined with offset measurement

Self-Check questions 1.1

Part I: Choose the most appropriate answer for each question accordingly.

1. What is surveying?

a) Determining the relative position of different features on Earth

b) Measuring the temperature of the atmosphere

c) Analyzing soil samples in a laboratory

d) Calculating the population density of a city

2. Which instrument is commonly used in land surveying for measuring angles and distances?

a) Total station b) Microscope c) Oscilloscope d) Spectrometer

3. What is the purpose of a topographic survey?

a) Mapping the natural and man-made features of a land area

b) Determining property boundaries and ownership

c) Measuring the volume of a particular plot of land

d) Analyzing the ecological composition of a forest

4. What are land title surveys used for?

a) Determining the legal boundaries and ownership of land parcels

b) Assessing the seismic activity in a region

c) Estimating the amount of rainfall in an area

d) Investigating the quality of groundwater in a specific location

5. Which technology is commonly used in modern surveying to determine precise positions using satellite signals?

a) GPS (Global Positioning System). c) Sonar

b) Radar d) LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)

Unit Summary

Surveying is the process of measuring and mapping the physical features and boundaries of land. It involves using specialized instruments and
techniques to determine precise measurements and create accurate representations of the land. Surveying is conducted for various purposes,
including topographic mapping, land ownership determination, construction planning, property boundary establishment, natural resource
management, navigation route planning, environmental management, and soil and water conservation. Surveyors use tools like total stations, GPS
receivers, and 3D scanners to gather data and create detailed maps and plans. Overall, surveyingis a crucial discipline that provides essential
information for land development, infrastructure projects, property management, and environmental conservation.

Surveying is a vital process for measuring and mapping land features and boundaries. It follows principles of; working from whole to part,
location of point by measurement from two points of reference, consistency, independent checks, and accuracy to ensure reliable results. Natural
resource management surveying focuses on assessing and monitoring resources like forests, water bodies, and wildlife habitats. Surveying
methods can be categorized as plane or geodetic, and they vary based on objectives, instruments used, and fieldwork requirements. Some
common methods include land surveying, marine surveying, astronomical surveying, archaeological surveying, and aerial surveying. Overall,
surveying plays a crucial role in data collection for various purposes, such as land development, infrastructure planning, and environmental
conservation.

The measurement aspect of surveying includes distance measurement and angle measurement. It explains historical methods of measuring
distances and angles, as well as the use of modern techniques such as electronic distance measurement (EDM) and GPS. It emphasizes the
importance of gathering relevant information, identifying factors that may affect the survey, and selecting and checking suitable tools and
[Link] is a surveying technique used to determine the positions of points by measuring distances between them. It is commonly
applied in chain surveying, where only distance measurements are taken. Trigonometry involves observing ground inclination and measuring
surface distances to calculate horizontal distances. Traversing is another surveying technique that involves measuring the lengths and directions
of connected lines.

Unit Review Questions

Part I: Choose the most appropriate answer for each question accordingly.

1. Which method of surveying considers the Earth's surface as a plane and ignores the Earth's curvature?

a) Plane surveying method c) Land surveying method

b) Geodetic surveying method d) Marine surveying metho

2. Which method of surveying takes into consideration the Earth's curvature and is conducted over larger areas?

a) Plane surveying method c) Land surveying method

b) Geodetic surveying method d) Marine surveying method

3. Which type of surveying focuses on measuring and monitoring water bodies?

a) Forest surveys c) Agricultural surveys

b) Water resource surveys d) Wildlife habitat surveys

4. Which method of surveying is used to gather data to produce a topographic map showing the configuration of the terrain and the location of
natural and man-made objects?

a) Control survey c) Topographic survey

b) Boundary survey d) Mining survey

5. Which method of surveying deals with measuring natural or artificial features on land such as rivers, hills, roads, and buildings?

a) Land surveying method c) Astronomical surveying method

b) Marine surveying method d) Archaeological surveying method

6. Which method of surveying uses aerial cameras to take images of the Earth's surface for measuring distances?

a) Geological surveying method c) Military surveying method

b) Mine surveying method d) Aerial surveying method

7. Which instrument is commonly used for measuring horizontal angles and right angles in surveying?

a) Chain b) Compass c) Plane table d) Theodolite

8. Which method of surveying is used to locate strategic positions and enemy locations for military operations?

a) Geological surveying method c) Military surveying method

b) Mine surveying method d) Aerial surveying metho

Part II: Match the surveying method with its corresponding description:

1. Plane surveying method

2. Geodetic surveying method features on land such as rivers, lakes, roads, and buildings.
3. Land surveying method
4. Marine surveying method earth's curvature.
5. Aerial survey method

A. Deals with measuring natural or artificial

B. Considers the earth's surface as a plane and ignores the
C. Takes into consideration the earth's curvature and is conducted over larger areas.
D. Involves measuring water bodies for navigation, water supply, and harbor works.
E. Collects data about large areas of land by taking photographs from above using drones or planes.

Project Work 1.1

Properly handle and maintain each surveying tools and equipment‘s Project Work 1.2 Undertaking Traverse

➢ exploring and gathering data or information along the way in your area

UNIT 2

LEVELING AND TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY

Leveling, also known as land leveling, is a surveying technique used to create a level surface or a desired slope on a piece of land. It is commonly
used in construction, agriculture, and civil engineering projects to ensure proper drainage, create level foundations, or prepare land for irrigation.
The process involves measuring the height differences between different points on the land surface using a leveling instrument such as a level or a
transit.

Levelling is important in agriculture to prepare fields for planting, creating a smooth and level surface that promotes even crop growth. In
construction, leveling is done to even out an area of land by removing bumps and hills or adding fill to dips and valleys, preparing it for
construction or improving drainage. The process of leveling is often preceded by ploughing, which loosens and turns the soil, and followed by the
use of a leveller to break up larger soil clumps.

Land leveling plays a vital role in optimizing land for farming, improving crop yields, irrigation efficiency, and ensuring proper water drainage. It
also helps in preparing construction sites, creating irrigation channels, and preventing soil erosion.

Topographic surveys, on the other hand, are detailed mappings that gather data about the elevation and features of a piece of land, including
natural and man-made elements such as contours, bodies of water, vegetation, and structures. These surveys are used in various industries,
providing critical information for planning, design, land development, and real estate.

2.1 Establish leveling and topographic survey

In precision agriculture, levelling is the process of creating a flat, level surface. This is usually done by using a laser beam or GPS system to
measure the elevation of the land, and then using a machine to level it off. Levelling is important because it ensure that field equipment can move
smoothly over the surface of the field, and that crops are evenly distributed.

A topographic survey, also known as a topo survey, is a detailed mapping of the natural and man-made features of a piece of land. It involves
collecting data about the elevation of points on the land surface and creating a map that represents the physical characteristics of the area.

Topographic surveys are conducted using specialized equipment and techniques such as total stations, GPS receivers, and laser scanners.

The resulting topographic map, or contour map, displays the elevation contours of the land, showing its shape and slope. It also includes other
features like bodies of water, vegetation,buildings, roads, and other man-made structures. Topographic surveys are essential in various industries
and applications.

Topographic surveys are also used in environmental assessments, land development, and real estate. They help assess the suitability of land for
development, evaluate potential limitations or constraints, and understand the natural environment of the site. Additionally, topographic surveys
are important in urban planning and development, floodplain mapping and management, natural resource management, and mining and quarrying
operations.

2.1.1 Introduction to Leveling and topographic Techniques

Leveling is an essential method for obtaining accurate vertical measurements and creating level surfaces. The process involves using a leveling
instrument, such as a level or a digital level, along with a leveling rod. The leveling rod is placed at different points across the area of interest, and
the instrument is used to measure the vertical distance, or "rise," between the instrument and the rod.

The main objective of the topographic survey is to determine the position of any feature or any point in terms of both the horizontal coordinate
system such as latitude, longitude, and altitude. Identifying features and recognizing typical landform patterns are also part of this field.

Topographical surveys are also used to make maps used in industries such as geology, petroleum, and forestry.

Some key ways leveling is used in agricultural surveying include:

1. Topographic mapping - By taking elevation measurements at many points across a field or plot, surveyors can create detailed topographic maps
that show the contours and slopes of the land surface. This informs decisions on drainage, irrigation, and other infrastructure placement.

2. Cut and fill calculations - Leveling data allows surveyors to calculate the volume of soil that needs to be removed (cut) or added (fill) to
achieve a desired grade or elevation across an area. This is important for land grading, terracing, and earthmoving projects.

3. Establishing benchmarks - Permanent reference points called benchmarks with known elevations are set as control points. These benchmarks
allow for consistent elevation measurements across multiple surveys over time

4. Monitoring elevation changes - Repeat leveling surveys at the same locations can detect any settling, erosion, or other elevation changes that
occur on the land over time. This informs decisions on soil management and conservation.

5. Infrastructure planning - Elevation data from leveling is used to plan the placement and gradients of roads, drainage systems, irrigation canals,
and other agricultural infrastructure.

The specific leveling techniques used can vary, but commonly involve using surveying instruments like levels, theodolites, and GPS to measure
vertical distances and elevations across the landscape. The collected data is then processed and analyzed to produce useful topographic maps and
models.

Leveling can be done in different ways:

1. Differential Leveling: This method involves measuring the height difference between two points by setting up the leveling instrument at one
point and moving to the other. The difference in elevation is calculated by subtracting the initial height from the final height.
2. Profile Leveling: Profile leveling is used to determine the elevation changes along a specific line or route. It is often employed when surveying
roads, railways, or pipelines. The instrument is set up at regular intervals, and height differences are measured between points along the line.

3. Fly Leveling: Fly leveling is a rapid method used for surveying large areas. It involves establishing a series of temporary benchmarks or
turning points at regular intervals. The instrument is moved from point to point, and the height differences are measured quickly and [Link]
is used to prepare a map or plan to represent an area on a horizontal plane through the knowledge of modern science and the technology used in
this field. It can also be helpful to solve measurement problems optimally. It plays many important roles some are mentioned below:

1. It gives measurements of property boundaries for Legal documentation of the land before starting any construction work on that land

2. Subdividing the land becomes much easier with a proper, well-defined, survey. The subdivision is a sensitive matter when it comes to legal
authorities, and at that time, you can make yourself sure with a survey.

3. Property survey works with a diverse variety of projects from land subdivision and mining exploration.

4. Property survey includes measuring construction land and mapping the land.

5. To affirm the land depicted is what you’re paying for. To give a check on the property to ignore the further hindrance.

6. Dispenses with disagreements regarding limit lines and boundary corners.

7. The topographic survey helps to determine the urban Development, Infrastructure Projects, Hydro Projects, Highways, Railways, Irrigation.

8. It shows the area and nearness of the property i.e. calculating areas, distances, directions and preparing the land map to portray the survey data
so that it can be used as a permanent record.

9. It determines the area of physical upgrades in connection to the property lines.

Definition of basic terms used in leveling:

Level surface: Any surface parallel to the mean spheroid of the earth is called level surface and the line drawn on level surface is known as level
line.

Horizontal surface: Any surface tangential to level surface at a given point is called –Horizontal surface at point. Hence horizontal line is at right
angles to plumb line.

Vertical surface: It is the line connecting the point & Centre of earth. Vertical & horizontal line is normal to each other.

Vertical angle: Vertical angle is an angle between two intersecting lines in a vertical plane.

Generally, one of these lines is horizontal.

Datum: The point or the surface with respect to which levels of other points or planes are calculated is called Datum or surface

Elevation: The elevation of a point on or near the surface of the earth is its vertical distance above or below an arbitrarily assumed level surface or
datum.

Mean sea level (MSL): Mean sea level is the average height of sea of all stages of tides. Any particular place is derived by averaging over a long
period of 19 years.

Reduced level: Levels of various points are taken as heights above the datum surface are known as reduced level.

Bench mark: Bench mark is a relatively permanent point of reference whose Elevation w.r.t some assumed datum is known. There are four types
of bench mark

• G.T.S (Great trigonometry survey)

• Permanent bench mark

• Arbitrary bench mark.

• Temporary bench mark.

Major Leveling instruments

• The instrument most extensively used in leveling is the Level

• It is used to provide a horizontal line of sight

• It have four parts: the head, tripod, telescope and bubble tube

• Automatic level is the latest one

2.1.2 Procedures of leveling and topographic survey

Land leveling is the process of modifying the topography of a piece of land to achieve a desired slope or contour. Here's a brief overview of land
leveling:

1. Purpose: The primary purpose of land leveling is to create a more even and uniform surface. It helps to control water drainage, prevent soil
erosion, and optimize land use. Land leveling is commonly done to prepare fields for irrigation, improve crop productivity, create building sites,
or establish infrastructure.

2. Survey and Design: Before initiating land leveling, a survey of the existing topography is conducted to understand the terrain and identify any
[Link] on the desired outcome, engineers or land surveyors develop a design plan that outlines the target elevations, slopes, and
contours.

3. Equipment: Land leveling typically involves the use of heavy machinery and equipment. Motor graders, bulldozers, scrapers, and laser-guided
leveling systems are commonly employed. These machines are capable of moving large amounts of soil and shaping the land according to the
design plan.

4. Earthwork Operations: The land leveling process begins with removing excess soil from high areas and redistributing it to fill in low-lying
areas. This process is repeated until the desired contour is achieved. Precision is crucial to ensure the proper slope and drainage characteristics.

5. Water Management: Land leveling plays a vital role in water management. By creating a uniform slope, it facilitates efficient water distribution
and drainage. Proper land leveling helps prevent waterlogging, reduces the risk of crop damage, and maximizes water-use efficiency.

6. Soil Conservation: Land leveling can help in soil conservation efforts. By eliminating uneven surfaces, it minimizes the risk of soil erosion
caused by water runoff. This promotes better soil health and reduces sedimentation in nearby water bodies.

7. Precision Techniques: Advanced technologies, such as laser-guided systems and GPS, are often used to achieve precise land leveling. These
systems ensure accurate grading and contouring by providing real-time elevation data and control over the machinery.

8. Maintenance: After land leveling, regular maintenance is necessary to preserve the desired surface. This may involve periodic inspections,
repairing erosion-prone areas, and implementing erosion control measures such as vegetation cover or terracing

Leveling

Levelling (or Leveling) is a branch of surveying, the object of which is: i) to find the elevations of given points with respect to a given or assumed
datum, and ii) to establish points at a given or assumed datum.

Types of Leveling in Surveying

1. Direct leveling

2. Trigonometric leveling

3. Barometric leveling

4. Stadia leveling

1. Direct Leveling

It is the most commonly used method of leveling. In this method, measurements are observed directly from leveling instrument. Based on the
observation points and instrument positions direct leveling is divided into different types as follows:

• Simple leveling

• Differential leveling

• Fly leveling

• Profile leveling

• Precise leveling

• Reciprocal levelin
A. Simple Leveling

It is a simple and basic form of leveling in which the leveling instrument is placed between the points which elevation is to be find. Leveling rods
are placed at that points and sighted them through leveling instrument. It is performed only when the points are nearer to each other without any
obstacles.

B. Differential leveling

Differential leveling is performed when the distance between two points is more. In this process, number of inter stations are located and
instrument is shifted to each station and observed the elevation of inter station points. Finally difference between original two points is
determined.

C. Fly Leveling

Fly leveling is conducted when the benchmark is very far from the work station. In such case, a temporary bench mark is located at the work
station which is located based on the original benchmark. Even it is not highly precise it is used for determining approximate level.

D. Profile Leveling

Profile leveling is generally adopted to find elevation of points along a line such as for road, rails or rivers etc. In this case, readings of
intermediate stations are taken and reduced level of each station is found. From this cross section of the alignment is drawn.

E. Precise leveling

Precise leveling is similar to differential leveling but in this case higher precise is wanted. To achieve high precise, serious observation procedure
is performed. The accuracy of 1 mm per 1 km is achieved.

F. Reciprocal Leveling

When it is not possible to locate the leveling instrument in between the inter visible points, reciprocal leveling is performed. This case appears in
case of ponds or rivers etc. in case of reciprocal leveling, instrument is set nearer to 1st station and sighted towards 2nd station.

2. Trigonometric Leveling

The process of leveling in which the elevation of point or the difference between points is measured from the observed horizontal distances and
vertical angles in the field is called trigonometric leveling In this method, trigonometric relations are used to find the elevation of a point from
angle and horizontal distance so, it is called as trigonometric leveling. It is also called as indirect leveling.

3. Barometric Leveling

Barometer is an instrument used to measure atmosphere at any altitude. So, in this method of leveling, atmospheric pressure at two different
points is observed, based on which the vertical difference between two points is determined. It is a rough estimation and used rarely.

4. Stadia Leveling

It is a modified form of trigonometric leveling in which Tacheometer principle is used to determine the elevation of point. In this case the line of
sight is inclined from the horizontal. It is more accurate and suitable for surveying in hilly terrains

Topographic Survey

Key components of a topographic survey include:

1. Data collection: surveyors use precise instruments, such as total stations, GPS technology, and laser scanning equipment, to gather accurate
measurements of the land’s surface and features.

2. Contour mapping: the collected data is used to create contour lines, which represent elevation changes and help visualize the shape and slopes
of the land.

3. Feature detail: topographic surveys capture intricate details of the land, including vegetation, buildings, infrastructure, and any other relevant
elements.

4. Data presentation: the results of a topographic survey are typically presented as topographic maps, digital terrain models (DTMs), and three-
dimensional representations, providing a clear and comprehensive view of the surveyed area.

2.1.3 Leveling and topographic survey techniques

Topographic Surveying
• Determining the relative locations of points (places) on the earth's surface by measuring horizontal distances, differences in elevation and
direction

• Topos (Gr.): place; topographic maps give the locations of places (observable features); they serve as base maps

Use of topographic surveying

➢ producing topographic maps

➢ constructing topographic (cross-sectional) profiles

➢ establishing vertical and horizontal control for accurately defining locations

General Principles

1. select a scale in advance; this determines the plotable error

2. work from the most accurate to the least accurate methods

3. orient each survey, preferably with respect to true north

4. the first stage of surveying is always establishing horizontal and vertical control: the distance, direction and difference in elevation between
key fixed points

5. establish a survey plan that includes checks on accuracy, e.g. redundant points, pacing of measured distances, surveying between fixed
positions, etc.

Methods for Measuring Horizontal Distance and Difference in Elevation

1. Horizontal distance

➢ tachymetry: a rapid optical means of measuring distance using a telescope with cross hairs and a stadia rod (one stadium = about 607 feet)

➢ measuring slopes distance with a tape and reducing it to horizontal distance using the cosine of the slope gradient

2. Difference in elevation

➢ leveling with a level telescope and a stadia rod, or

➢ measuring a vertical angles and a slope distance (height is the product of the distance and sine of the angle)

Leveling is more accurate since elevation differences are measured not calculated. Two readings are taken at each position of the automatic level:
a backsight towards a station located before the level on the traverse and a foresight to the next station on the traverse. Thus the stadia rod
occupies two stations, before and after the level on the survey.

The difference in elevation between successive stations, if the difference between the backsight and the foresight read from the stadia rod. For
each position of the level, the lengths of the foresights and backsights should be approximately the same since accuracy is a function of the
distance of a sighting.

The level operator should anticipate the distance to the next station and set up the level midway along this distance (note: the distance that can be
sighted decreases with increase in slope, since the stadia rod will disappear above or below the level line of sight). The lengths of backsight and
foresight can be paced by the rod person or measured by the interval between the upper and lower cross hairs (tachymetry). Booking and
Reduction of the levels

There are two methods of booking and reduction of levels

A. Height of instrument method

The "Height of Instrument" method is a surveying technique used to determine the difference in elevation between two points. It involves using a
leveling instrument, such as a level telescope, to measure the vertical angle from a known reference point (the instrument) to a target point. By
measuring the vertical angle and the distance between the instrument and the target point, the height difference can be calculated using
trigonometric principles. This method is commonly employed in construction, engineering, and land surveying to establish accurate elevation
data for various purposes.

The calculation in the "Height of Instrument" method involves using trigonometry to determine the difference in elevation between two points.
Here is a step-by-step overview of the calculation:
1. Set up the leveling instrument at a known reference point with a known elevation. This reference point is often called the benchmark.

2. Sight the leveling instrument to a target point whose elevation you want to determine

3. Measure the vertical angle between the line of sight from the instrument to the target point and the horizontal plane. This angle is typically
measured using a leveling instrument equipped with a vertical circle or an electronic level.

4. Measure the horizontal distance (also known as the sight distance) between the instrument and the target point. This can be measured using a
tape measure or a distance-measuring device.

5. Calculate the height difference using the following formula:

Height Difference = Sight Distance * sin(Vertical Angle)

The sight distance is multiplied by the sine of the vertical angle to obtain the vertical component of the distance.

6. Add or subtract the height difference from the known elevation at the benchmark, depending on whether the target point is above or below the
benchmark. This will give you the elevation of the target point.

It's important to note that accurate measurements and precise leveling instruments are crucial for obtaining reliable results.

Height of instrument methods deals with obtaining the reduced level (RL) of the line of collimation by adding BS reading of a point whose RL is
known. The RL of line of collimation is called Height of Instrument. From this, the staff readings of all intermediate stations are subtracted to get
the RL at those points. In this method, height of instrument (HI) is calculated for each setting of the instrument by adding the back sight (BS) to
the elevation of the bench marks (BM) HI= BM + BS. The reduced level (RL) of the first station is obtained by subtracting its fore sight (FS)
from the instrument height (HI). Instrument Station (IS) is the reference point with a known elevation where the leveling instrument is set up
during the surveying process.

RL= HI-FS/IS

B. Rise and fall methods

In this method, the difference of level between two consecutive points for each setting of the instrument is obtained by comparing their staff
readings. The difference between their staff readings indicates a rise if the back staff reading is more than the fore sight and a fall if it less than
the fore sight.

Unit Summary

Leveling is a surveying technique used to determine the elevation differences between points on the Earth's surface. It involves measuring the
vertical distances between points to create a level surface or establish points at a specific height. This technique is commonly used in
construction, agriculture, and civil engineering projects to ensure proper drainage, create level foundations, and prepare land for irrigation.
Topographic surveys, on the other hand, are detailed mappings of the natural and man-made features of a piece of land. They involve collecting
data about the elevation and characteristics of the land surface to create a map that represents its physical features. Topographic surveys are used
in various industries for planning, design, land development, and real estate purposes. Leveling and topographic surveying techniques are crucial
for optimizing land for farming, improving crop yields, ensuring proper water drainage, and preparing construction sites. They provide accurate
and detailed information about the elevation, contours, and features of the land, enabling informed decision-making and effective planning in
various industries In a topographic survey, accurate measurements of the land's surface and features are collected using instruments like total
stations, GPS technology, and laser scanning equipment. The data is used to create contour maps, capture detailed features, and present the results
as topographic maps, digital terrain models (DTMs), and three-dimensional representations. Topographic surveying is a method used to determine
the positions of points on the Earth's surface. It involves measuring horizontal distances, elevation differences, and directions. The data collected
is used to create topographic maps and profiles. The surveying process follows general principles such as selecting a scale, working from most
accurate to least accurate methods, orienting surveys with respect to true north, establishing horizontal and vertical control, and implementing a
survey plan with accuracy checks. The methods used include tachymetry for measuring horizontal distances, leveling for determining elevation
differences, and booking and reduction techniques for recording and calculating survey data. Practical procedures for conducting a topographic
survey involve preparing tools and equipment, setting up the surveying instrument, ensuring proper leveling, and determining the elevation of
points with respect to a known datum.

UNIT 3

DEVELOP MAP

Introduction
Map development is the process of creating maps that accurately represent the features and characteristics of a specific area or region. Maps are
visual representations of the Earth's surface or a portion of it, providing valuable information about the spatial relationships between various
elements.

The development of maps involves several key steps. First, data collection is conducted through various methods such as surveying, remote
sensing, and geographic information systems (GIS).

Surveying involves on-site measurements of physical features, while remote sensing utilizes satellite imagery or aerial photography to gather
data. GIS combines spatial data from multiple sources to create comprehensive maps.

Once the data is collected, it undergoes processing and analysis. This includes cleaning and organizing the data to ensure accuracy and
consistency. Analytical techniques may be applied to extract meaningful information from the data, such as identifying patterns, calculating
distances, or performing spatial modeling.

The next step is cartographic design, which involves selecting appropriate symbols, colors, and scales to represent the data on the map. This is
important for effectively communicating information to map users. Cartographers consider factors such as readability, clarity, and visual
hierarchy when designing maps.

After designing the map, it goes through a production phase, where it is printed or published in digital formats. Printing involves selecting
appropriate paper, colors, and printing techniques. Digital maps can be displayed on computer screens, mobile devices, or integrated into web-
based applications. Map development is a multidisciplinary process that requires expertise in geography, cartography, surveying, remote sensing,
and GIS. It plays a crucial role in various fields and industries. Maps are used for navigation, urban planning, environmental management,
disaster response, transportation, land administration, and many other [Link] advancements in technology, map development has
evolved significantly. Digital mapping tools, such as geographic information systems (GIS) and satellite imagery, have revolutionized the way
maps are created and utilized. These tools allow for dynamic and interactive maps that can be updated in real-time and customized for specific
purposes. In general, map development is a complex process that involves data collection, processing, analysis, cartographic design, and
production. Maps are essential tools for understanding and representing the Earth's surface, enabling us to navigate, plan, and make informed
decisions in various domains.

3.1 Map Development

What is a Map?

A map is a symbolic representation of selected characteristics of a place, usually drawn on a flat surface. Maps present information about the
world in a simple, visual way. They teach about the world by showing sizes and shapes of countries, locations of features, and distances between
places.

A map is a representation or drawing of the earth's surface or a part of its area drawn on a flat surface. A map is always made according to a scale.
There are different types of maps like political, physical and thematic

A map is a visual representation of an entire area or a part of an area, typically represented on a flat surface. The work of a map is to illustrate
specific and detailed features of a particular area, most frequently used to illustrate geography.

• Map is a representation on paper of a certain area of country.

• Fundamentally, a map is nothing more than a picture from which one can visualize the subject which it portrays.

• A map is a diagram showing the details and features which exists on the ground.

• A map can never be completely up to date, for there must always be features which have appeared since the map was made.

• A map cannot show everything because there is not room to do so

Uses of maps

Maps provide valuable spatial information that supports informed decision-making, sustainable resource management and conservation efforts.
Here are some major uses of maps related to natural resources management:

1. Land Use Planning: Maps are crucial for identifying and mapping different land uses, such as agriculture, forestry, mining, and conservation
areas.

2. Resource Inventory and Assessment: Maps are used to inventory and assess natural resources, including forests, water bodies, minerals, and
wildlife habitats.

3. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): They help in proposed projects, identifying sensitive areas and designing mitigation measures.
4. Watershed Management: Maps are essential for understanding the hydrological characteristics of watersheds, including rivers, lakes, wetlands,
and groundwater resources.

5. Conservation Planning: Maps play a vital role in identifying areas for conservation, endangered species habitats, and, aiding in the
development of conservation plans and strategies.

6. Forest Management: Maps are widely used in forestry for forest inventory, timber harvesting planning, and monitoring of forest health and
regeneration.

7. Wildlife Management: Maps are employed to map and monitor wildlife populations, migration routes, and critical habitats. They assist in
making informed decisions regarding wildlife conservation, habitat restoration, and protected area management.

8. Climate Change Adaptation: Maps are used to visualize climate change vulnerability, including areas prone to sea-level rise, increased
temperatures, or extreme weather events.

1.1.1 Types of maps, charts, scales and their uses

There are several types of maps, each serving a specific purpose and providing different types of information. Here are some common types of
maps:

A. Political Maps

A political map shows boundaries and divisions of countries, states, cities, and other political entities. It focuses on the administrative and
political features of an area

B. Physical Maps

A physical map displays the physical features of an area, such as mountains, rivers, lakes, deserts, and other natural landscapes. It provides
information about the terrain and geographical characteristics.

C. Topographic Maps

A topographic map represents the elevation and relief of a land surface using contour lines. It shows detailed information about the shape, height,
and features of the land, including mountains, valleys, and other physical features.

D. Climate Maps

A climate map illustrates the climate patterns and characteristics of a particular region or area. It typically displays temperature ranges,
precipitation levels, and other climatic factors.

E. Geological Map

A geological map provides information about the geological composition, rock formations, and mineral resources of a specific region. It shows
the different types of rocks, faults, and other geological features.

G. Road Maps

A road map is designed to assist with navigation and provides detailed information about roads, highways, streets, and transportation networks. It
often includes symbols and labels for landmarks, attractions, and services along the roadways.

H. Thematic Maps

A thematic map focuses on a specific theme or subject, such as population density, climate, vegetation, economic indicators, or demographic data.
It uses colors, patterns, or symbols to represent the specific theme being depicted.

I. Nautical Charts

A nautical chart is used for navigation in marine environments. It includes information about water depths, coastal features, buoys, navigational
aids, and potential hazards for safe navigation.

J. Cadastral Maps and Plans

Cadastral maps are specialized maps that focus on individual properties and provide important details about boundaries and ownership. These
maps are commonly used during property surveys and are essential for land management and planning purposes. Although cadastral maps may
not be encountered in everyday life, they are widely utilized by surveyors, town planners, and individuals involved in real estate transactions.

Map Charts
What is a Map Chart?

Map charts are graphical representations that use geographical maps as a visual backdrop to display data points or statistical information
associated with specific geographic locations. They are effective tools for visualizing geographically based data such as population density,
election results, or economic indicators.

Map charts utilize visual elements like colors, symbols, or shading to convey data trends, patterns, or relationships across different regions or
coordinates. However, it's important to consider the nature of your data and the story you want to tell when deciding whether to use a map chart,
as they may not be suitable for all types of data or storytelling purposes. Overall, map charts offer a powerful and intuitive way to position data
and visualize spatial relationships using geographical context.

Map Scales

What is a map scale?

A map's scale is the ratio of a distance on the map to its equivalent distance on the ground. The scale on the map represents the distance between
each landmark. On a 1: 1000000 cm scale map, for example, 1cm equals 1km on the earth. The curvature of the Earth's surface complicates this
simple notion by forcing scale to change throughout a map.

There are three types of scales commonly used on maps: written or verbal scale, a graphic scale, or a fractional scale. A written or verbal scale
uses words to describe the relationship between the map and the landscape it depicts such as one cm represents one km.

1. Fractional or Ratio Scale

A fractional scale map displays a portion of an object or geographic feature on the map. This type employs a series of integers to represent an
item or a landmark such as 1:24,000.

2. Linear Scale or graphic scale

A linear scale depicts the distance between two or more notable locations. On maps, the linear scale is a series of lines or dots that represent a
landmark. The second type of scale is a graphic scale, or sometimes known as or bar scale. This shows directly on the map the corresponding
ground distance.

3. Verbal Scale

Simple terms are used to define a noticeable surface feature on this scale. A verbal map scale describes a location or object by expanding
abbreviations, for example “One inch to the mile”.

Converting Between Scale Types

Converting between scale types is a process that allows us to translate the representation of distance on maps and other geographical
representations. When converting between scale types, it's essential to maintain the accuracy and proportionality of the original scale to ensure
accurate measurements and representations on the map. Understanding and being able to convert between different scale types is crucial for map
reading, navigation, and spatial analysis.

A vital step in doing any kind of conversion that involves differing units is to include the units in the problem itself.

Verbal Scale to RF

The key here is to write the verbal scale as a fraction, then convert so that both numerator and denominator have the same units, and the
numerator has a 1.

(a) Convert verbal scale of "1" to 18 miles" to RF 1inch on map * 1mile * 1foot = 1inch on map = 1map 18miles ground 5,280feet 12inches
(18*5,280*12)inchesground 1,140,000groundor 1:1,140,000.

Notice that the resulting fraction is rounded so that the RF does not imply more accuracy than the original precision warranted.

(b) Convert verbal scale of "15 cm to 1 km" to RF 15cm map * 1/15 * 1km * 1m * 1cmmap = 1map1kmground 1/15 1000cm 100cm
(1000*100)/15cmground 6700groundor 1:6700.

In many conversions you can save steps if you remember additional equivalencies.

For example, in (a) above, we could have used the fact that 1 mile = 63,360 inches to skip a step.

Verbal Scale to Graphic Scale

Usually this is a relatively easy task if the map gives us reasonable units in the verbal scale. We can use the verbal scale like a fraction to
transform the ground distance to map distance.

(c) Convert verbal scale of "1 cm to 14 km" to a graphic scale.

One centimeter is a relatively small distance, so we probably don't want our bar scale to have major divisions much smaller than this. A
centimeter represents 14 km, so a division of 10 km is probably fine. Therefore we want to find how many centimeters represent 10 km.

10kmground * 1cmmap = 10cmmap = 0.71cmmap

14kmground 14

In other words, we can represent our 10 km increment on the bar scale by measuring off 0.71 cm on the map. We'd draw the first tick at 0.71 cm,
the second at 1.42 cm, and so on:

One centimeter is a relatively small distance, so we probably don't want our bar scale to have major divisions much smaller than this. A
centimeter represents 14 km, so a division of 10 km is probably fine. Therefore, we want to find how many centimeters represent 10
km.10kmground * 1cm map = 10cm map = 0.71cm map 14kmground 14

In other words, we can represent our 10 km increment on the bar scale by measuring off 0.71 cm on the map. We'd draw the first tick at 0.71 cm,
the second at 1.42 cm, and so on:

RF to Graphic Scale

This adds an extra step to the example above. We can find the map-distance equivalent of a ground distance, but we also need to be careful about
choosing which ground distance we want to portray on the map. Perhaps it's easiest to choose a smaller ground distance that you can then
multiply to get a reasonable bar scale.

(d) Convert an RF of 1:250,000 to a graphic scale

If we aren't sure what increments a bar scale would have for this scale, we could start out, say, with finding the map equivalent of 1 mile:

1map = 1cmmap * 100,000cm * 1/100,000 = 1cm map 25,000ground 25,0000cmground 1km 1/100,000 0.25kmground

This might work fine, with one mile marked off on the map every 0.25 inch; or, we may want finer or broader increments, which we can find by
dividing or multiplying the 0.25" as needed.

RF to Verbal Scale

Again we have to choose appropriate units to convert into. Most verbal scales are either "one inch represents ____ miles," or "one centimeter
represents ___ kilometers." These are relatively easy to do, since it means only that we convert the denominator of our RF to the larger units.

(e) Convert from RF of 1:25,000 to a verbal scale, in metric 1map = 1cmmap * 100,000cm * 1/100,000 = 1cmmap 25,000ground 25,000cm
ground 1km 1/100,000 0.25kmground

Therefore,

1 centimeter on this map represents 1/4 of a kilometer on the ground

Graphic Scale to RF

Here we must take a measurement from the bar scale to determine the map distance that corresponds to a ground distance.

(f) Find the RF scale for the following graphic scale

By measuring with a ruler, we find that 10 kilometers measures 2.4 cm. We can use this relationship to find the RF for the bar scale:

2.4cmmap * 1/ 2.4 * 1km = 1map, or 1:420,000

10kmmap 1/ 2.4 100,000cm 420,000ground

Determining Scale from a Map or Photo

Some maps may come with no scale at all. Aerial photographs almost never do (unless one was painted on the ground before the photo was
taken!). How can you derive a scale for use with the map or photo?
Actually the procedure is very similar to the last example above. But instead of measuring along a bar scale, you must measure the length of an
object on the map or photo whose actual length you know. This might be a football field, a city block, or the Equator (if it's a world map). Often
you can identify 1-mile-square sections in the US (see the account below, under Survey

Systems). You may even need to go out to the location mapped or pictured and measure the distance between two identifiable objects.

Once you have the two distances, you can find the scale as above. For another example, suppose you have a map where the distance between two
section-line roads is 3.5 inches on the map. We can usually assume this is one mile on the ground (there are exceptions). The RF scale is then:

3.5inches ground * 1/3.5 * 1mile = 1map , 1:18,000

1mile ground 1/3.5 63,360inches 18,000groun

One caveat (exception) for air photos is that this method assumes the two locations are at the same elevation--or that the terrain is flat. If you are
using air photos, the terrain may not be flat.

If there are hills, even moderate ones, the calculations can be thrown off. Keep this in mind for later in the course.

Another way to calculate scale on an unknown map or photo is to compare it to a map with a known scale. For example, suppose you have an air
photo where the distance between two hills is 7.2cm. You have a map of the same area at 1:24,000, and on the map the distance between the hills
is 2.4 centimeters.

The answer involves a little algebra. Since the ground distance is the same on both photo and map, we can create an expression for this ground
distance for both, and then put them on either side of an equation. The ground distance can be found by multiplying the map/photo distance by
the scale (in this case, by the inverse of the scale--notice how this makes the units cancel correctly). We need to find, for the photo, how many
ground units are represented by one unit on the photo, so we use an x for this unknown quantity and solve for it: 7.2cm photo * x ground =
2.4cmmap * 24,000 ground and 1photo 1map 7.2cm * xcmground = 2.4cmmap * 24,000cm ground we can cancel the units on each side and
divide by 7.2: x = (2.4*24,000)/7.2 = 8,000 In other words, the RF scale for the photo is 1:8,000.

Determining Distance and Area from Map & Scale

Map scale isn't much use in and of itself. We can use a map's scale to determine distances and areas on the map. Compared to converting between
scale types, calculating distance is simple. Area calculations are trickier, since we have to square the numbers.

Finding distance from map and scale

As an example, suppose we have a map with a scale of 1:50,000. We measure the distance along a property boundary as 1.7 cm. What is the
length in the real world?

1.7cmmap * 50,000ground * 1km = 1.7 * 50,000kmground = 0.85km 1map 100,000 100,00

To find ground distance, we must use the map scale to convert map distance to ground distance. Notice that again we inverted the RF scale, so the
units will cancel properly. Once we multiply by the scale, we need to convert the ground distance to units suitable for ground measurement--in
this case, from centimeters to kilometers.

We can also calculate distance from verbal and graphic scales. With verbal scales, we use the same procedure as above with the RF. The only
difference is that we have to use the units given in the verbal scale (e.g., 1 inch to 17 miles). We'd probably want to measure our map distance in
the same units (in this case, inches) to make our conversion easy.

Graphic scales are probably the scales most frequently used by laypersons. You can mark off a distance on the map and compare it directly to the
bar scale. You need not know how many inches or centimeters the map distance is. The main drawback of bar scales is that they are usually short
compared to the map itself, and hence measuring longer distances is difficult.

Finding area measurement from map and scale

Area must be expressed in areal units, which are usually distance units squared -- cm2, mi2, and so on. We must therefore use squared conversion
factors when finding area from map measurements.

For example, suppose we measure a rectangular piece of property that is 3 cm by 4 cm on a map. The map is at a scale of 1:24,000. What is the
area of the parcel?

The area of the parcel on the map is

3cm *4cm =12cm2

3cm *4cm =12cm2map2 * (24,000ground/1map)2

* (1m/100cm)2

= 12cm2 map2

* 576,000ground * 1m2

1map 10000cm2

= 12*576,000,000 m2

ground2 = 691,200m2

on the ground.

10,000

Since this is a large number, we might want to translate to other units. There are 10,000 square

meters per hectare, so the area is 69 hectares (ha) (a hectare is about 2.5 acres). Or, there are

(1,000)2 = 1,000,000 square meters per square kilometer, so the area is also 0.69 km2

Notice that by writing the units as part of the problem, and squaring them along with the numbers, our units cancel properly and we end up with a
sensible answer. There is another way to tackle area problems if you have distance dimensions like 3 x 4 cm to start out the problem. You can
convert the distance dimensions to real-world distances first, and then multiply them to find the area. This makes the problem longer but perhaps
simpler.

3.1.2 Map development and reading technique

Maps are generally symbolic, two-dimensional graphic representation of any elements or whole of the earth’s surface drawn to a scale. Maps are
commonly used by the geographers as one of the most important tools to depict and display information about the forms, pattern and changes in
the physical and human landscape. Maps are now digital and multilayered. Cartography (the science and art of map-making) has been largely
subsumed by the Geographic Information System (GIS) during the last few decades.

Topographic maps:

Topographic maps provide a detailed representation of the natural and man-made features of the earth’s surface. The main characteristic of such
maps is the representation of the threedimensional terrain or relief by the use of contour lines. Symbols and colors are used in topographic maps
to identify cultural and natural features. For example, cultural features can be roads, trails, buildings, boundaries, railways, power transmission
lines, pipeline, mines, dams, recreation areas. Natural features may include water (rivers, streams, lakes, wetlands), relief (mountains, valleys and
other landforms), vegetation (forested areas, built-up areas). Toponomy is added to provide textual information about features.

Map Reading

➢ Categorize maps based on scales and purposes;

➢ Distinguish the conventional signs and symbols used to represent differentfeatures on maps;

➢ Identify some of the marginal information given on maps;

➢ Convert linear scale to areal scale;

➢ Calculate the scale of a map

➢ Calculate the areas of regular and irregular shaped figures by referring tothe scale of a map;

➢ Construct statistical diagrams using simple line graphs, bar graphs and piecharts based on the provided data

3.1.3 Develop Map

Classification of map development refers to categorizing the different types or approaches to creating maps based on their purpose, content, or
characteristics. Here are some common classifications of map development:

1. Based on Purpose:

a. Reference Maps: These maps provide general information about the location, boundaries, and physical features of an area. They are used for
navigation, orientation, and general reference purposes.
b. Thematic Maps: Thematic maps focus on specific themes or topics, such as population density, land use, climate, or transportation networks.
They visually represent data related to a particular theme and are used for analysis and communication of specific information.

c. Topographic Maps: Topographic maps represent the physical features of an area, including elevation, relief, rivers, and vegetation. They are
used for land navigation, engineering, and outdoor recreational activities.

d. Navigational Charts: Navigational charts are specialized maps used for marine or aeronautical navigation. They show water depths,
navigational aids, coastal features, and other information crucial for safe navigation

2. Based on Scale:

a. Small-Scale Maps: Small-scale maps cover large areas but provide less detail. They are used for regional or global overviews and are typically
used in atlases or for spatial analysis.

b. Large-Scale Maps: Large-scale maps cover smaller areas but provide more detailed information. They are used for urban planning, cadastral
mapping, and detailed analysis of

specific locations.

3. Based on Media or Format:

a. Print Maps: These maps are printed on paper or other physical media and are widely used for general reference, navigation, and educational
purposes.

b. Digital Maps: Digital maps are created and viewed electronically, often displayed on computer screens or mobile devices. They can be
interactive, allowing users to manipulate and explore the map's content.

4. Based on Technology or Methodology:

a. Traditional Cartography: Traditional cartography involves manual map creation techniques, such as hand-drawn or painted maps. It relies on
artistic skills and traditional mapmaking tools.

b. Computer Aided Cartography: Computer-aided cartography involves the use of specialized software and digital tools for map creation. It
enables precise data manipulation, analysis, and efficient map production.

5. Based on Content:

a. General Purpose Maps: These maps provide a broad overview of an area, including physical features, political boundaries, and major cities.
They are commonly used for general reference or educational purposes.

b. Specialized Maps: Specialized maps focus on specific topics or industries, such as geological maps, soil maps, transportation maps, or tourist
maps. They provide detailed information tailored to specific needs

These classifications are not mutually exclusive, and maps can often fall into multiple categories.

The classification of map development helps in understanding the purpose, content, and characteristics of different types of maps, enabling map
developers to create maps that effectively serve their intended applications. Maps are among our oldest tools. People created maps even in
primitive times. For instance, men and women sketched their routes to hunting, fishing and gathering grounds.

Today, we also prepare maps, for many purposes. However, map-making has passed through many stages of development since its beginning. The
two main stages of the historical development of map-making are;

A. Traditional map-making

B. Modern map-making

Traditional map-making

What are the major features of traditional map-making? How did people represent the environment on maps in the past?

The art of traditional map-making is as old as the human race. Traditional maps have been made in many ways. For example, early map materials
included sticks, shells, clay tablets, parchment, paper and solid plates of silver.

Many traditional maps were locational. For example, they have shown the locations of water holes and hunting grounds and have included paths
that led to these places.
In traditional map-making, collecting measurements of distances, directions, areas and locations was one of the greatest challenges. Each
measurement was be made by hand, through field work in the area being mapped. This process was laborious and tiresome. Often the accuracy of
the resulting information is imperfect and therefore not fully dependable.

Another main difference between traditional and modern maps is that a traditional map might include drawings of three-dimensional objects. As a
result, a traditional map might be somewhat pictographic (or physiographic) rather than strictly diagrammatic. Most traditional maps are sketch
maps.

Modern map-making

When did modern map making start?

What is the role of GIS in modern map-making?

The modern science of map-making has its basis in the 17th century. The various developments that took place during the Renaissance gave way
to accurate map- making (cartography). Furthermore, advancements in science and technology resulted in the invention of better cameras and
airplanes specially designed to take aerial photographs. Today, map-makers have diverseopportunities to acquire spatial information. In addition
to aerial photography, satellite imagery provides a wealth of information.

Nowadays, computers have come to be “close friends” of map-makers. This is because they have become in valuable in making maps. In the last
three decades of the 20th century computers have been seen as integral part at almost every stage of the cartographic process. They play roles in
the collection, storage, analysis, and presentation of data, and even in the mapping and reproduction of maps. This makes the Geographic
Information System (GIS) indispensable to modern map-making.

A GIS needs a geographic database of, for example, a digital record of geographic information.

The first step in developing a GIS is to create the geographic database from such sources as maps, field surveys, aerial photographs, satellite
imagery, and so forth.

Generally, modern map-making is fast and uses modern ways and means of collecting information, such as specially designed airplanes, remote
sensors and the Global Positioning System (GPS).

Practical procedure for developing a map

Developing a map involves a practical procedure that combines data collection, analysis, design, and production. The following steps outline a
general procedure for map development:

1. Determine the Purpose and Scope: Clearly define the purpose of the map and its intended audience. Identify the specific features, themes, or
information that need to be represented. This will guide the entire map development process.

2. Collect and Organize Data: Gather relevant data from various sources such as surveys, remote sensing, or existing datasets. Ensure the data is
accurate, up-to-date, and suitable for the map's purpose. Organize the data in a systematic manner, considering the required attributes and spatial
referencing.

3. Perform Data Analysis: Analyze the collected data to extract meaningful information and identify patterns or relationships. Apply appropriate
spatial analysis techniques or statistical methods to gain insights and understand the data's characteristics. This analysis will inform the map
design process

4. Select Map Design Elements: Determine the appropriate map design elements, including symbols, colors, labels, and layout. Consider factors
such as legibility, clarity, and visual hierarchy. Choose symbols and colors that effectively represent the features and convey the desired
information.

5. Choose Map Projection and Scale: Select an appropriate map projection that minimizes distortion and suits the area being mapped. Consider
the scale of the map, which represents the relationship between map distances and real-world distances. Choose

a scale that provides sufficient detail while maintaining readability.

6. Create the Map Layout: Using cartographic software or drawing tools, create the map layout based on the chosen design elements. Place the
map elements, including the title, legend, scale bar, and north arrow, in a clear and organized manner. Ensure the layout is aesthetically pleasing
and effectively communicates the map's information.

7. Digitize and Symbolize Data: Digitize the collected data onto the map using appropriate mapping software. Apply the chosen symbols, colors,
and labels to represent the features accurately. Ensure that the symbology is consistent and aligned with established conventions.
8. Review and Refine: Review the map for accuracy, completeness, and overall quality. Check for any errors, inconsistencies, or missing
information. Seek feedback from colleagues or subject matter experts to ensure the map effectively communicates the intended information and
meets the project requirements.

9. Finalize and Publish: Make any necessary revisions based on feedback and finalize the map. Prepare the map for printing or publishing in
digital formats. Consider the appropriate medium for distribution, whether it's in print, online, or integrated into a digital application or platform.

10. Update and Maintain: Maps may require updates as new data becomes available or changes occur in the mapped area. Establish procedures
for maintaining and updating the map to ensure its accuracy and relevance over time.

The practical procedure for map development may vary depending on the specific project requirements, available resources, and the complexity
of the map. It is important to followestablished cartographic principles, use accurate and up-to-date data, and consider the needs and preferences
of the map's intended audience.

3.1.4 Examine Map Symbols, Information

Map Symbols

What are map symbols?

Symbol is the language of map, and it is the basic means to express the content of map. Map symbols are composed of graphics and characters
with different shapes, sizes and colors, notes are an important part of map symbols, which also have different shapes, sizes and colors. As far as a
single symbol is concerned, it can represent the spatial location, size, quality and quantitative characteristics of things; as far as a similar symbol
is concerned, it can reflect the distribution characteristics of various elements; and the sum of all kinds of symbols can indicate the
interrelationship between the elements and the overall characteristics of the region. Since a map is a reduced representation of the real world, map
symbols are used to represent real objects. Without symbols, we wouldn't have maps.

Both shapes and colors can be used for symbols on maps. Colors may cover larger areas of a map, such as green representing forested land and
blue representing waterways. To ensure that a person can correctly read a map, a Map Legend is a key to all the symbols used on a map. It is like
a dictionary so you can understand the meaning of what the map represents.