Human Development: An Overview

Feature Growth Development

Type of Quantitative (increase in Qualitative (maturation and function) &

Change size/number) Quantitative

Restricted to physical aspects Comprehensive; includes physical,

Scope
(structural) functional, social, cognitive, etc.

Directly measurable (e.g.,

Measurable Indirectly assessed (e.g., skills, abilities)
height, weight)

Process External, visible process Internal, functional organization process

Limited; stops upon reaching Continuous; lifelong process ("womb to

Duration
maturity tomb")

A part of the overall Includes growth, differentiation, and

Relationship
developmental process morphogenesis

Development: physiological, behavioral, cognitive, and social changes across life shaped by both genetic
predispositions (nature) and environmental influences (nurture). We begin at conception, follow prenatal
stages, then infancy (birth–1 year), childhood (until puberty), adolescence (puberty to adulthood),
emerging/early/middle/older adulthood, and finally preparations for death.

Erikson's Framework

Each life stage has a central challenge; successful development resolves those stage-specific goals
positively.
Nature & Nurture
Genetics guide timing and potential (e.g., identical twins), while prenatal and postnatal environments
shape outcomes.
1. Nature (Genetics)
● Plays a substantial role in physical and biological development.
● Example: Identical twins show synchronized milestones (sitting, walking).
2. Nurture (Environment)
● Begins influencing us even in the womb.
● Environmental influences remain critical throughout development.
Personal Agency and Active Role
● We actively shape our own lives and learning.
● Our behavior influences:
○ What and how we learn.
○ How others respond to us.
○ Our development as unique individuals.

Conception: The Beginning

Conception occurs when a sperm fertilizes an egg. Ovulation releases a mature ovum into the fallopian
tube about midcycle; hormones prepare the uterine lining for implantation.
The sperm journey: up to 500 million sperm begin the trip; a few strong swimmers reach the egg.
Enzymes help one sperm penetrate the egg’s coating. Once one sperm enters, the egg blocks others and
draws in the successful sperm.

THE CONCEPTION PROCESS

1. Ovulation (The Mother's Role)
Definition: An ovum (egg) matures and is released from the ovary.
Timing: Occurs about halfway through the menstrual cycle.
Hormonal Action: Complex hormones assist egg maturation and thicken the uterus lining for
potential implantation.

2. The Sperm Journey (The Father's Role)

Up to 500 million sperm are deposited.
Only the strongest swimmers survive the journey up the fallopian tube.
3. Fertilization
Sperm reach the egg and release enzymes to break down the outer coating.
A race occurs for the first point of entry.
4. The Block
As soon as one successful sperm enters:
○ The egg immediately blocks all other competing sperm.
○ The egg pulls in the single successful sperm to complete fertilization.

The Zygote
Within hours of conception, chromosomes fuse to form a zygote. The zygote travels to the uterus; fewer
than half survive this stage.
Cell Division
Cells rapidly divide: 2 → 4 → 8 → thousands, beginning differentiation into specialized roles.
Implantation
If viable, the zygote attaches to the uterine wall; if not, it may be expelled during menstruation.

The Zygote: The First Stage

1. Formation
What it is: A fertilized ovum.
How it forms: 23 chromosomes from the egg and 23 from the sperm fuse together.
2. The Journey
The zygote travels down the fallopian tube to the uterus.
This is a high-risk journey; fewer than half of all zygotes survive this stage.
3. Implantation
If viable: The zygote attaches itself to the wall of the uterus.
If not viable: It is flushed out during the menstrual cycle.
4. Cell Division (While Traveling)
Cells divide exponentially (2 → 4 → 8 → thousands).
Soon, cells begin to differentiate (take on separate functions).
5. First Differentiation
Inside Cells: Begin to form the developing human.
Outside Cells: Form the protective environment (e.g., placenta).

The Embryo
After implantation the zygote is called an embryo. Over the next six weeks major internal and external
organs begin forming from tiny cell groups.
Support Structures
• Amniotic sac: fluid reservoir; cushion and temperature regulator.
• Placenta: exchanges nutrients and filters harmful substances via a thin membrane.
• Umbilical cord: connects embryo to placenta, transfers nutrients.

The Embryo Stage (Weeks 3-8)

Defining the Embryo
Begins when the zygote successfully attaches to the uterine wall.
Duration: Lasts for approximately six weeks.
2. Key Development: Organ Formation
The major internal and external organs are formed.
Changes in appearance accelerate rapidly until birth.
3. The Protective Environment
The outer layer of cells forms three critical support structures:
A. Amniotic Sac
A fluid-filled reservoir surrounding the developing human.
Functions as a cushion against pressure and a temperature regulator.
B. Placenta
An organ that allows the exchange of nutrients between the mother and the embryo.
 Acts as a filter, blocking many harmful materials through a thin membrane.
C. Umbilical Cord
Directly links the embryo to the placenta.
Transfers all necessary material (nutrients, oxygen) to the fetus.

The Fetus: Growth and Maturation

From week 9 the embryo is a fetus. The fetal stage focuses on growth: from under an ounce to ~6–8
pounds over six months.
Movement & Senses
By month three: finger curling, fist-making, toe wiggling; early swallowing, breathing motions,
developing taste and sound responses.
Preferences Form
Newborns prefer mother’s voice, languages heard in the womb, and flavors based on maternal diet.
Sexual Differentiation
By the end of month three, sexual organs are visible.

The Fetal Stage (Week 9 to Birth)

1. Defining the Fetus
Begins at: The ninth week after conception (after the embryonic stage).
Defining Characteristic: Massive growth and refinement of systems.
2. Growth Spurt
The fetus spends approximately six months growing from less than an ounce to an average of six
to eight pounds.
3. Developing Characteristics
The fetus begins practicing essential human functions:
Movement: Able to curl fingers, form fists, wiggle toes (by the third month).
Motor Skills: Practices early forms of swallowing and breathing.
Sensory Development: Becomes able to distinguish tastes and respond to sounds.
4. Initial Preferences
Research shows the fetus develops early preferences based on experiences in the womb:
Prefers the mother’s voice and languages heard in utero.
Prefers certain foods that the mother ate during pregnancy.
5. Physical Milestone
By the end of the third month, sexual organs are visible.

Maternal Behavior & Socioeconomic Context

Maternal smoking reduces oxygen and can cause low birthweight. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) causes
physical anomalies and intellectual disabilities; no safe alcohol level in pregnancy—avoid completely.

Smoking
Reduces maternal and fetal blood oxygen; risk of severe underweight at birth.
Alcohol (FAS)
FAS/FASD: limb, facial, genital abnormalities and intellectual disabilities; ~9 per 1,000 births in Canada.
Poverty & Stress

Poverty amplifies risks (malnutrition, domestic violence, substance exposure), harming healthy child
development.

Prenatal Screening & Birth

Early pregnancy screenings—blood tests, sonogram, ultrasound, amniocentesis—detect neural tube

defects, chromosomal abnormalities (e.g., Down syndrome), and genetic diseases so interventions can
improve fetal health.

Labor & Delivery

Around the 38th week, fetal brain chemicals trigger uterine contractions. Contractions progress from ~15-
minute intervals to 2–3 minutes when active pushing begins.

Newborn Capacities & Early Learning

Newborns have survival reflexes and early preferences (sweet tastes, mother’s smell and face). Infants
contribute actively—babbling, crawling, grasping, playing—to their own development.

Reflexes & Preferences

-Reflexes support initial survival; preferences guide early bonding and feeding.

Active Development

- Exploration and interaction expand abilities; enriched environments increase synapses

and cortex size (animal and human parallels).

Newborn Reflexes

What reflexes should be present in a newborn?

Reflexes are involuntary movements or actions. Some movements are spontaneous and occur as part of
the baby's normal activity. Others are responses to certain actions. Healthcare providers check reflexes to
determine if the brain and nervous system are working well. Some reflexes occur only in specific periods
of development. The following are some of the normal reflexes seen in newborn babies:

Rooting reflex

This reflex starts when the corner of the baby's mouth is stroked or touched. The baby will turn their head
and open their mouth to follow and root in the direction of the stroking. This helps the baby find the
breast or bottle to start feeding. This reflex lasts about 4 months.
Suck reflex

Rooting helps the baby get ready to suck. When the roof of the baby's mouth is touched, the baby will
start to suck. This reflex doesn't start until about the 32nd week of pregnancy and is not fully developed
until about 36 weeks. Premature babies may have a weak or immature sucking ability because of this.
Babies also have a hand-to-mouth reflex that goes with rooting and sucking. So they may suck on their
fingers or hands.

Moro reflex

The Moro reflex is often called a startle reflex. That’s because it usually occurs when a baby is startled by
a loud sound or movement. In response to the sound, the baby throws back their head, extends out their
arms and legs, cries, then pulls the arms and legs back in. A baby's own cry can startle them and set off
this reflex. The Moro reflex lasts until the baby is about 2 months old.

Tonic neck reflex

When a baby's head is turned to one side, the arm on that side stretches out and the opposite arm bends up
at the elbow. This is often called the fencing position. This reflex lasts until the baby is about 5 to 7
months old.

Grasp reflex

Stroking the palm of a baby's hand causes the baby to close their fingers in a grasp. The grasp reflex lasts
until the baby is about 5 to 6 months old. A similar reflex in the toes lasts until 9 to 12 months.

Stepping reflex

This reflex is also called the walking or dance reflex because a baby appears to take steps or dance when
held upright with their feet touching a solid surface. This reflex lasts about 2 months.