MODULE 3: Important Diodes:

Working of:
[Link] diode
[Link] cell
[Link]
[Link] diode
5. Gunn diode
and their applications.
 Photodiode
Definition:
•A special type of PN junction device that
generates current when exposed to light is
known as Photodiode.

•It is also known as photodetector or photo

sensor.
 Constructional details of photodiode:

•The PN junction of the device placed inside a glass material.

•This is done in order to allow the light energy to pass through it.
•As only the junction is exposed to radiation, thus the other portion of the glass
material is painted black or is metallized.
•It operates in reverse biased mode & converts light energy into electrical
energy.
Principle of Photodiode: Photoconductivity: Photoconductivity is a phenomenon
in which the conductivity of a material increases when it is illuminated by
radiation.
Working of Photodiode
When the photodiode is not exposed to light or radiation, the electrons in the p side flow
through the junction. As the minority carriers are flowing through the junction, there will
be a flow of reverse current. This current is called dark current.

When the photodiode is exposed to light, the temperature of the junction will increase.
The electrons and holes will get separated from each other. The electrons, which are on
the n side will get attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery and the holes,
which are on the p side will get attracted to the (-) terminal of the battery.

As a result of this, a high amount of reverse current gets generated through the junction.
When the light intensity increases, more carriers are generated and flow through the
photodiodes. Hence, a large current is produced.

The light intensity is directly proportional to the electric current.

 •Here the vertical line represents the reverse
current flowing through the device & the
horizontal line represents the reverse–biased
potential.
•The first curve represents the dark current that
generates due to minority carriers in the absence
of light.
•As we can see in the figure that all the curve
shows almost equal spacing in between them.
This is so because the current proportionally
increases with the luminous flux.
•When the diode surface is illuminated additional
electron hole pairs are generated. This boost the
condition & the reverse current increases.

Thus by controlling the illumination level the current flowing through the device can be
varied.
 Applications of photodiodes

• Photodiodes are used in burglar alarms.

• Photodiodes are used in counters and switching circuits.
• It helps to communicate in the optical system.
• It is used in logic circuits and encoders.
 Application of Photodiode
•Photodiodes majority find its use in counters & switching circuits.
•They are extensively used in optical communication system.
•Logic circuits & encoders also make use of photodiode.
•It is widely used in burglar alarm systems. In such alarm systems, until exposure
to radiation is not interrupted, the current flows. As the light energy fails to fall
on the device, it sounds the alarm.
•These diodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke detectors,
compact disc players, and televisions and remote controls in VCRs.
•Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like
instruments to analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography and also
used in blood gas monitors.
•Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity of light
in science & industry. Generally, they have an enhanced, more linear response
than photoconductors.
 Solar cell(Photovoltaic cell)

Solar cell: Solar cell is a photovoltaic device that converts the light energy into electrical
energy based on the principles of photovoltaic effect
Principle of Solar Cell:Photovoltaic effect:
Definition: The generation of voltage across the PN junction in a semiconductor due to the
absorption of light radiation is called photovoltaic effect. The Devices based on this effect is
called photovoltaic device.
Construction of Solar Cell Working of Solar Cell
Construction of Solar Cell
It consist of a P-N junction. The n-side of the junction faces the solar radiation.
The p-side is relatively thick & is at the back of the solar cell.

Both the p & n side are coated with conducting material. The n side is coated
with an anti reflection coating which allows visible light to pass through it. The
main function of this coating is to reflect the IR (heat) radiations & protect the
solar cell from heat.

This coating works as the electrical contact of the solar cell. The contact on the
n-side is called the front contact & that at the p-side is called the back contact or
the rear contact.

The n-side of a solar cell is thin so that the light incident on it reaches the
depletion region where the electron-hole pairs are generated.
+ + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Working of Solar Cell:
When light with photon energy greater than the band gap energy is incident on a
solar cell, electron-hole pairs are formed in both n & p region as well as in the
depletion region of the diode.
The internal build in potential barrier VB creates a field that assist the photo generated
minority charge carriers in the vicinity of the junction to cross the junction
Thus the electrons accumulate in the n region & holes in the p region near the junction
give rise to a voltage called photo voltage.
This separation of carriers is possible due to the intrinsic electric field of the depletion
region.
A solar cell generates a net potential of about 0.6V when subjected to solar radiation.
By connecting several solar cells in series a desired voltage can be obtained .A parallel
connection can give required current.
Solar cells are non-conventional energy source as no fuel is used to generate electrical
energy & no frequent maintenance is required.
 ZENER
▪ Zener diode is basically likeDIODE
an ordinary PN junction diode but normally operated
in reverse biased condition.
▪ But ordinary PN junction diode connected in reverse biased condition is not used
as Zener diode practically.
▪ A Zener diode is a specially designed, highly doped PN junction diode.
Zener Diode-Forward Bias
When a zener diode is forward biased ,it operates as a normal diode.
In forward biased P side connected to positive and n side connected to
negative terminal of battery. In this case the Electrons and holes are swept
across the junction and large current flow through it
Zener Diode-Reverse Biased
In case of reverse biased current is practically zero and at certain voltage
which is called Zener voltage the current increases sharply.
Each zener diode has breakdown rating which specify the maximum voltage
that can be dropped across it.
V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode The diagram given below shows the V-I
characteristics of the Zener diode. When the Zener diode is connected, in forward
bias, diode acts as a normal diode. But Zener breakdown voltage occurs when the
reverse bias voltage is greater than a predetermined voltage.
Working of Zener Diode :The basic principle behind Zener diode working is based
on the cause of breakdown when the diode is in the reverse biased condition. For a
Zener diode there are two types of breakdown:
1. Zener breakdown 2. Avalanche breakdown
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ZENER DIODE

❑ When a PN junction diode is reverse biased, the depletion layer becomes wider.
❑ If this reverse biased voltage across the diode is increased continuously, the depletion
layer becomes more and more wider.
❑ At the same time, there will be a constant reverse saturation current due to minority
carriers.
❑ After certain reverse voltage across the junction, the minority carriers get sufficient kinetic
energy due to the strong electric field.
❑ Free electrons with sufficient kinetic energy collide with stationary ions of the depletion
layer and knock out more free electrons.
❑ These newly created free electrons also get sufficient kinetic energy due to the same
electric field, and they create more free electrons by collision cumulatively.
❑ Due to this commutative phenomenon, very soon, huge free electrons get created in the
depletion layer, and the entire diode will become conductive. This type of breakdown of
the depletion layer is known as avalanche breakdown, but this breakdown is not quite
sharp.
ZENER BREAKDOWN

❑ There is another type of breakdown in depletion layer which is sharper compared to

avalanche breakdown, and this is called Zener breakdown.
❑ When a PN junction is diode is highly doped, the concentration of impurity atoms will be
high in the crystal.
❑ This higher concentration of impurity atoms causes the higher concentration of ions in the
depletion layer hence for same applied reverse biased voltage, the width of the depletion
layer becomes thinner than that in a normally doped diode.
❑ Due to this thinner depletion layer, voltage gradient or electric field strength across the
depletion layer is quite high.
❑ If the reverse voltage is continued to increase, after a certain applied voltage, the electrons
from the covalent bonds within the depletion region come out and make the depletion
region conductive.
❑ This breakdown is called Zener breakdown.
❑ The voltage at which this breakdown occurs is called Zener voltage.
❑ If the applied reverse voltage across the diode is more than Zener voltage, the diode
provides a conductive path to the current through it hence, there is no chance of further
avalanche breakdown in it.
❑ Theoretically, Zener breakdown occurs at a lower voltage level then avalanche breakdown
in a diode, especially doped for Zener breakdown.
❑ The Zener breakdown is much sharper than avalanche breakdown.
❑ The Zener voltage of the diode gets adjusted during manufacturing with the help of
required and proper doping.
❑ When a zener diode is connected across a voltage source, and the source voltage is more
than Zener voltage, the voltage across a Zener diode remain fixed irrespective of the source
voltage.
❑ Although at that condition current through the diode can be of any value depending on the
load connected with the diode.
❑ That is why we use a Zener diode mainly for controlling voltage in different circuits.
Application of Zener Diode Following are the applications of Zener diode:
[Link] diode as voltage regulator: Zener diode is used as Shunt voltage
regulator for regulating voltage across small loads. The breakdown voltage of
Zener diodes will be constant for a wide range of current. Zener diode is
connected parallel to the load to make it reverse bias and once the Zener diode
exceeds knee voltage, the voltage across the load will become constant.
[Link] diode in over-voltage protection: When the input voltage is higher than
the Zener breakage voltage, the voltage across the resistor drops resulting in
short circuit. This can be avoided by using Zener diode.
[Link] diode in clipping circuits: Zener diode is used for modifying AC waveform
clipping circuits by limiting the parts of either one or both the half cycles of an AC
waveform.
 Varactor Diode
• The Varactor diode is also known as variable capacitance diode, variable reactance diode,
tuning diode.
• The P and N sides of the Varactor capacitor function like the conductive plates of the
capacitor. It is shown in the below figure.
• The symbol of Varactor diode is also shown in the resultant figure. The symbol of this diode is
alike to a normal diode.
• This diode also has anode and cathode like PN junction diode.
• One end is an anode and the second end has 2 lines that represent the plates of a capacitor.

SYMBOL CKT DIAGRAM CONSTRUCTION

Depletion
region
width

Dielectric conducting plates

•As we know Zener diode can operate in both reverse and forward biasing condition but the
Varactor diode always function in reverse biasing condition.

•Its doping level is high to increases capacitance of its depletion region, here the capacitance
term is used because its operation is similar to the capacitor.

•Similar to the dielectric material in the capacitor, depletion region of Varactor diode behaves like
dielectric material.

•This diode is also named as voltage-dependent diode because its output relies on the value of
the voltage at its input terminals.

•In applications where different values of capacitance are needed, Varactor diode is used and its
capacitance varies with the input voltage.
 Varactor Diode Construction

•For the construction of Varactor diode P and N semiconductor materials are used.
•As we know that in N-type materials free electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are
minority charge carriers.
•Due to the majority of electrons in N materials & majority of holes In P-type materials, current
flows.
•A combination of P semiconductors with the N semiconductors, PN junction is created among
them.
•This PN junction is the partition between P and N semiconductors.
•In the depletion region, the positive and negative ions are exists that are linked with each other
through the electric field.
Working of Varactor Diode

•Varactor diode operates in reverse biasing condition

where current is almost zero.
•If we apply voltage in forward biasing condition then
current will pass through a diode.
•In forward biased conditions, the area of the depletion
region is very thin and ions in the depletion region are
very less in thin region.
•If we apply a voltage across a diode in reverse biased
condition, the electrons in N part of diode moves towards
the positive terminal of battery and holes in P part of
diode move toward the negative point of battery.
Working of Varactor Diode
•Due to the movement of electrons and holes the area of
depletion region increases.
•As the Varactor diode is similar to a capacitor due to the
large size of depletion region capacitance will decrease
according to the below equation. C =
Where ἐ = permittivity of the semiconductor
A∈/d material,
A= the area of junction and d=width of the depletion layer.

•Though, if the provided reverse-biased voltage is less, the

capacitance will be very huge.
•The capacitance is in inverse relation to the width of the
depletion region and direct proportion to the areas of N and
P portions.
•If we increase the reverse-biased voltage the area of
depletion region will increase and capacitance will more
reduce.
•If we decrease reverse-biased voltage the area of the
depletion region will reduce and capacitance will increases.
•So an increment in reverse-biased voltage enhances the
area of the depletion region and reduces the capacitance
of Varactor diode.
•The decrement in capacitance indicates that charge storage
decreases.
•So the capacitance of diode can be regulated through the
voltage variation.
•As we know in fixed capacitor there is no variation in the
value of capacitance.
•While capacitance of Varactor diode is varied with the
voltage variation that is why Varactor diode is also called as
variable capacitor.
•The unit for the capacitance of the Varactor diode is pF.
 Applications of Varactor Diodes
• Varactor diodes are replacing mechanically tuned capacitors in a number of applications
because of their small size, lack of moving parts, Reliability, faster response, Rugged in
construction, operation over wide range of frequency etc.

• Main applications
• Automatic frequency control device.
• FM Modulator.
• Adjustable band pass filter.
• Parametric amplifiers.
• Harmonic generators.
• Mixers.
 GUNN Diode

GUNN diode is a semiconductor diode made up of N type semiconductor

material only. It does not have PN Junction like the other diodes. So it has
only electrons as the majority charge carriers and it has two electrodes.
Mainly used as low power oscillator to generate microwave.
 GUNN Effect:

Gunn effect

The GUNN effect was discovered by John Battiscombe Gunn of IBM in 1963. He noticed some noise in
some semiconductor materials during his experiments and it is named after him as GUNN effect. High
frequency oscillation of the electric current flowing through certain semiconducting material produces
short radio waves called microwaves. This effect is seen in only few materials like gallium arsenide or
cadmium sulphide.
 Symbol of GUNN Diode: Most commonly used GUNN diode symbol is shown in
the figure above. It consists of two filled triangles and
the two pointed tip of the triangle meeting each
other. The terminals are marked as Anode and
Cathode.

Construction of GUNN diode: As mentioned earlier the GUNN diode is made up of

only N type material. Lightly doped material which is
called active layer is placed in between two heavily
doped N type material. The heavily doped material
provides conductivity to the diode. It is placed over
the conducting base which acts as the heat sink.

Mostly GUNN diode material are poor conductors, so

it produces lot of heat during the operation and thus
the heat sink is used. Anode is formed by placing a
gold film at the top of the surface.
Construction of Gunn diode
 Working of GUNN diode:
When the no external voltage is applied the free electrons which are the majority charge
carriers in the N type material move freely with high mobility.

When it is forward biased the movement of electrons results in the current. In normal
conductors when the voltage is increased the mobility of the electrons increases, thus current
increases. But in GUNN diode when the applied voltage increases , due to GUNN effect the
electrons with high mobility are forced into low mobility state.
Thus the conductivity decreases. Because of this unusual relationship between voltage and
current, high frequency oscillating current is produced.

When the current pulse formed reaches the end of the active region the next pulse starts. This
decides the operational frequency. It depends on the thickness of the active region. GUNN
diodes in the market need external voltage of about 9V and produces microwaves of
frequency from 1 to 200 GHz.
V-I characteristics of Gunn diode
 Advantages:
•Size is smaller
•Manufacturing cost is low
•It reliable and stable at higher frequencies
•Noise to signal ratio is better
•Operates at high bandwidth
Disadvantages:
•Efficiency is low
•Operating current is high, so the power dissipation is also high
•High turn ON voltage
•Temperature stability is low
Application of GUNN Diode:
•Used in microwave instruments and receiver circuits
•Used in automatic door openers , traffic signal etc
•Used in radio communications
•Used in military systems
•Used in tachometers