MODULE 2: Junction diode:

Formation of p-n junction

calculation of barrier potential
Diode equation
p-n junction in forward Bias
p-n junction in Reverse bias
Current- voltage curve for p-n junction diode
LED and its working
 n-type versus p-type
In n-type - the electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the
minority carriers.
In p-type - the holes are called the majority carriers and electrons
are the minority carriers.
The PN Junction
After doping an intrinsic semiconductor material, usually silicon, so that
part of it is p-type and the other part is n-type, a pn junction is formed at
the boundary between the p and n regions. In the p region, the majority
carriers are holes while in the n region, the majority carriers are free
electrons.
 Formation of Depletion Region

When the pn junction is formed, the n region loses free electrons as they diffuse across the
junction. This creates a layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions) near the junction. As the
electrons move across the junction, the p region loses holes as the electrons and holes combine.
This creates a layer of negative charges (trivalent ions) near the junction. These two layers of
positive and negative charges form the depletion region
 W
-- ++
-- ++
p -- E ++ n

Known as space charge

region/depletion region.

Potential difference across the depletion region is called the built-in potential barrier, or built-in voltage
 Formation of the Depletion Region
When the pn junction is formed, the free electrons in the n region begin to diffuse across the junction and combine
with the holes in the p region near the junction. This makes the n region lose free electrons and creates a layer of
positive charges near the junction. As the free electrons combine with the holes in the p region, the p region also
loses holes and creates a layer of negative charges near the junction. These two layers of positive and negative
charges create a region where charge carriers are depleted. This region is called, the depletion region.

In reality, the depletion region is formed in an incredibly short amount of time and its width is very thin compared to
the p and n regions. The depletion region will continue to expand until the total negative charge in the depletion
region repels any further diffusion of electrons into the p region. This time, the depletion region acts as a barrier to
the movement of electrons across the junction.
 Barrier Potential

The potential difference of the electric field across the depletion region is the amount of
voltage required to move electrons through the electric field. This difference is called the
barrier potential and is expressed in volts. barrier potential of a pn junction depends on several
factors, including the type of semiconductor material, the amount of doping, and the
temperature. The typical barrier potential is approximately 0.7 for silicon and 0.3 V for
germanium at 25°C.
Barrier Potential
In the depletion region, there are many positive and negative charges on opposite sides, and
as described by Coulomb’s law, if there’s a positive charge and a negative charge near each
other, there is a force acting on these charges.

The forces between the positive and negative charges in the depletion region create an
electric field which blocks the free electrons from the n region to flow across the junction.
In order for the electrons to move through this electric field, a certain amount of voltage
equal to the barrier potential of the electric field must be applied across the pn junction
with the proper polarity.
If we try to examine the energy diagram for a pn junction at the instant of formation, we can see that the valence
and conduction bands in the n region are at a noticeably lower energy level compared to the p region valence and
conduction bands. But, we can also see that the upper part of the conduction band in the n region and the lower
part of the conduction band in the p region overlap. In this case, the free electrons in the upper part of the
conduction in the region can easily diffuse across the pn junction and temporarily become free electrons in the
lower part of the p region conduction band. Temporary because, after crossing the pn junction, these free electrons
rapidly lose energy and fall into the holes in the valence band of the p region.
As the free electrons from the upper part of the n region conduction band cross the junction, the depletion region
starts to form and expand. But, the energy level of the n region conduction band also starts to decrease. This
process will continue until there will be no electrons left in the n region conduction band with enough energy to
cross the junction. At that time, the junction is at equilibrium and the depletion region is complete because the
diffusion is done.
The Equilibrium pn Junction
● Join n-type and p-type doped Silicon (or Germanium) to form a p-n junction.

Creates a charge
Electron diffusion separation that
sets up electric
field, E
Hole diffusion

-- ++
p -- ++ n
E
-- ++

The Electric field will create a force that will stop the
diffusion of carriers reaches thermal equilibrium
condition
Biasing of PN Junction diode:-

When an external voltage applied across the diode it is called biased.

Depending upon the polarity of the dc voltage applied Biasing can be classified
into two types-

[Link] Biasing

2. Reverse Biasing
1. Forward Biasing of PN Junction Diode :-

If the external D.C source is connected in such a way that p-region terminal is
connected to the positive of the dc source & the N-region is connected to the
negative of the D.C source, the biasing is known as forward biasing.
1. Forward Biasing:-
 1. Forward Biasing:-

When PN Junction is forward bias, as long as the applied voltage is less than the
Barrier Potential there can not be any conduction.
When the applied voltage becomes more than barrier potential the negative
terminal of battery forces the free electron against barrier potential from n to p
region.
Similarly positive terminal pushes the holes from p to n region. As forward bias is
increased more no. of majority carriers cross the junction. These majority
carriers can travel around the closed circuit & a relatively large current flows.
The direction of current is opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
Therefore current flows from positive terminal to negative terminal of the
battery.
Due to forward bias Depletion width is decreased.

As the applied voltage increases, the depletion region becomes narrower, as the
electric field created by the applied voltage begins to neutralize the electric field
created by the immobile ions. This reduction in the depletion region width
allows more majority carriers to cross the junction, resulting in an exponential
increase in current flow through the diode.
Applications of Forward Bias:
Forward bias configurations are widely used in electronic circuits. They are
used when there is a need to flow signals within the circuits. Rectifier circuits
are the most common examples of forward bias applications.
2. Reverse Biasing of PN Junction Diode:-

When p-region of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of the

battery & N-region is connected to the positive terminal of the battery ,diode is
said be in Reverse bias.
2. Reverse Biasing of PN Junction Diode:-
Effect of Reverse Bias on Depletion Region
As the applied voltage increases, the depletion region becomes wider, as the
electric field created by the applied voltage attracts more majority carriers away
from the junction. This widening of the depletion region increases the resistance
of the diode, effectively making it an insulator.
Leakage Current Flow in Reverse Bias
In a reverse-biased diode, the current flow is extremely small and is referred to
as the leakage current or reverse saturation current. This leakage current is
caused by the minority carriers (electrons in the p-type region and holes in the
n-type region) that are generated thermally and can diffuse across the depletion
region.
The magnitude of the leakage current is typically in the range of nanoamperes
(nA) or microamperes (μA), which is much smaller than the current flowing
through a forward-biased diode.
What happens is that, the high reverse-bias voltage gives
enough energy to the free minority electrons, so that as
they move through the p region, they collide with atoms
and knock valence electrons out of orbit and into the
conduction band. Now, these electrons that were knocked
out from their orbit become conduction electrons. They
are also high in energy and so they repeat this process of
colliding with atoms that results into multiplication of
conduction electrons. Because these electrons possess
high energy, after they cross the depletion region, they
don’t combine with the minority holes but go through the
n region as conduction electrons.
The multiplication of conduction electrons causes the reverse
current to increase drastically. If the reverse current is not
limited, this might cause damage to the diode.
 The negative terminal of battery attracts the hole & positive terminal
attracts the free electrons. Because of this , holes & free electrons flow
away from the junction & no current flow due to majority carriers.
Depletion layer gets wider during Reverse Bias.
The depletion layer stops growing when its difference of potential equals to
the applied reversed voltage.
Minority Carrier Current: Due to thermal Energy minority carriers exist on
both sides of the junction. These minority carriers cross the junction &
constitute a small current called as minority current or Reverse Saturation
current represented by IS or IO

The unidirectional current flow property makes diodes essential for various
applications, such as rectification, where they convert alternating current
(AC) to direct current (DC), and in protection circuits, where they prevent
reverse currents from damaging sensitive components.
V-I Characteristics of P-N junction Diode
The diode current equation expresses the relationship between the current flowing through
the diode as a function of the voltage applied across it. Mathematically the diode current
equation can be expressed as:

Diode Current Equation

Where ID: Diode Current
IO :Diode Reverse Saturation Current
VD: External Voltage Applied
Ƞ:a constant(1 for Ge,2 for Si)
VT: Thermal Voltage

Where K: Boltzmann constant(1.38X10-23 J/K)

q=Electron charge(1.6 X 10-19C)
T:Temperature in K
Light Emitting Diode(LED): It is a p-n junction that under appropriate forward biased
circumstances can serve as a light emitter also called as semiconductor lamp. LED can emit
spontaneous radiations in the UV,Visible& infrared regions of electromagnetic spectrum. Let us
discuss visible LED. An eye is only sensitive to light of energy hϑ≥1.8eV. This requires that the
S.C used for LED should have Eg>1.8eV
GaP LED ---- Eg=2.25eV emit Orange, Yellow & Green light.

Principle: The LED is a semiconductor device based on the principle of electro-luminescence. It

emits light in the forward biased condition.
Luminescence: emission of optical radiation(IR,UV,VS)as a result of electronic excitation of a
[Link] electroluminescence the source of input energy is electric field or current. When
energy is supplied to the S.C material the electrons are excited to higher energy state E 2 & after
10-8 seconds ultimately spontaneously falls back to E1 state with an emission of photon of
energy E= E2 – E1. LED is mainly concerned with injection electroluminescence. i.e since it is
forward biased electrons are injected into p-side & holes to n-side by the battery.
The construction of LED is similar to the normal
p-n junction diode except that Gallium,
Phosphorous & Arsenic materials are used for
construction instead of Silicon or Germanium
materials.
Since in p-side holes are the majority charge carriers , injected electrons are minority
charge carriers & in n region electrons are the majority charge carriers, obviously the
injected holes are the minority charge carriers. These minority charge carriers when
recombine with the majority charge carriers in the respective regions ,emit energy in the
form of photon of light.
Applications of Light Emitting Diodes
There are many applications of the LED and some of them are explained below.

LED is used as a bulb in the homes and industries

The light emitting diodes are used in the motorcycles and cars

These are used in the mobile phones to display the message

At the traffic light signals led’s are used

Advantages of LED’s
The cost of LED’s is less and they are tiny.

By using the LED’s the electricity is controlled.

The intensity of the LED differs with the help of the microcontroller.
Q 2.
[Link] the build in potential barrier in a silicon pn junction at T=300K,Na=5x10 17/cm3 &
Nd=1016/cm3,ni=1.5X1010/cm
Q 6. A silicon pn junction at T=300K with zero applied bias has doping concentration of
T=300K,Na=5x1016/cm3 & Nd=1015/cm3,ni=1.5X1010/cm