Question Bank

MGM University
Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College, Aurangabad
ESE Question Bank of Engineering Physics
Unit-I (CO-1)
1. What are Newton’s rings and how are they formed? (5 Marks)
[Dig-1mark; explanation-2 marks; Path difference- with interference Conditions -2 marks]
2. How can refractive index of a liquid be determined using these fringes (5 marks)
[Dig-1mark; expression-3 marks; Final equation of R.I. -1 mark]
3. Explain interference of light in wedge shaped film and prove that for air film β = λ/2θ
(5 marks)
4. [Dig-1mark; Path difference- with interference Conditions -1 Proof of film β = λ/2θ
2 marks]
5. Discuss interference of light in thin film for reflected rays (5 Marks)
[Dig-1mark; Explanation -1 mark; Determination of Path difference- with interference
Conditions -3 marks]
6. In case of Newton’s ring prove that Dn∝ √n where, Dn is diameter of nth dark ring (5
Marks)
[Dig=1mark; condition of dark ring and path difference =1 mark; Proof Dn∝ √n =3
marks]

7. What is Diffraction? What are types of diffraction? (4 Marks)

[Def of diffraction=1 ; Discussion of types of diffraction with diagram=3 ]
8. What is diffraction grating? How do you determine wavelength of an unknown source
using grating?
Or
Describe theory of a plane transmission grating (5 Marks)
[[Link] diffraction grating with central maxima and first order =1 mark; Explanation=2
marks; Path difference and final equation of constructive interference)]
9. Distinguish between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction(4 distinguished points =4 Marks)

Engineering Physics_JNEC, MGM University Page 1

 Question Bank

10. Discuss different methods for production of polarized light. (5 Marks)

[Reflection =1mark ; Refraction with dig =2 mark; Double refraction with dig=2]
11. Explain Huygens theory of double refraction.(5 Marks)
12. What is Polarising angle? state Brewster’s law (5 Marks)
13. Define i) Optical Activity (ii) Angle of rotation iii) Specific rotation (5 Marks)
14. What is specific rotation? With neat labeled diagram describe construction and working
of Laurent half shade polarimeter.(5 Marks)
[Def. Of specific rotation =1 mark; Labelled digram =1 mark; Explaination of construction
and working 3 marks)

Unit-II (CO2)
15. What are ultrasonic waves? Explain the magnetostriction method for production of
ultrasonic waves.(5 Marks)
(label dig. 1 mark; magnetostriction effect statement =1 mark; Detail explanation of
method with equation of resonance frequency =3 marks)
16. What are ultrasonic waves? Explain the piezoelectric method for production of ultrasonic
waves.(5 Marks)
(label dig. 1 mark; piezoelectric effect statement =1 mark; Detail explanation of method
with equation of resonance frequency =3 marks)
17. Discuss important applications of ultrasonic waves.(5 marks) (5 Applications =5 marks)
18. What do you mean by magnetization, permeability and susceptibility of magnetic
material? (5 Marks)
19. Write a short note on “Dielectric Constant” (3 Marks)
20. What is dielectric polarization? Discuss its types(5 marks)
[ Def of dielectric polarisation=1 mark; explanation of dielectric polarization types with
dig.: 4 Marks]
21. Explain in brief the effect of frequency and temperature on dielectrics (4 Marks)
22. Distinguish between Para, dia, ferro magnetic materials(5 Marks=distinguished points)
Or
Explain types of magnetic materials i.e. Para, dia, ferro, antiferro magnetic materials

Engineering Physics_JNEC, MGM University Page 2

 Question Bank

23. What is magnetic domain? Draw a neat diagram of B-H Curve and discuss its features.
[ Def. of domain=1 mark ; Dig of Hysterisis =1 Detailed explanation of curve =3]

Unit-III (CO3)
24. What are positive rays? How they are produced? (5 marks)
[def= 1 mark; production of positive ray dig.=1 Explanation 3 marks]
25. Derive an expression for e/m by Thomson’s method. (5 Marks)
[dig.=1 mark, e/m derivation with explanation of electron in E & B=4 marks]
26. What is Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle? (5 marks)
[Statement of Principle =1 mark ; Explanation of uncertainty of momentum and position
in small and large wave packet =3 marks Mathematical statement=1 mark]
27. With neat diagram explain construction and working of Bainbridge Mass Spectrograph. (5
Marks)
[dig. with label=1 mark; Explanation of working and construction= 2 marks ;
Mathematical Expression=2 marks]
28. Explain in detail the construction and working of G-M counter (5 Marks)
[Dig =1 mark; Construction and working=3 marks; Graphical representation of plateau
region=1 mark]
29. Derive an expression for time dependent & independent Schrodinger equation (8
Marks)[Derivation of time dependent equation =4 marks; Derivation of time independent
equation=4 marks]
30. Describe Physical Significance of wave function (5 Marks)
31. Write Maxwell’s equations in integral and differential form and give its physical
significance (5 Marks) [ 4 equations with its significance -5 marks]
32. Deduce the equation of motion for an electromagnetic wave in free space.(5 Marks)
Or
Derive an expression for electromagnetic wave in free space and find the value of
velocity of light in free space.

Unit-IV(CO4)

Engineering Physics_JNEC, MGM University Page 3

 Question Bank

33. Explain formation of energy bands in solids.(5 marks)

34. Define Fermi Energy level. Discuss Fermi energy position in intrinsic semiconductor(5
Marks)[ no derivation required , Def.1 mark; dig.1 mark; explanation 3 marks]
35. What is Fermi-Dirac distribution function? (3 marks)
36. Define Fermi Energy level. Explain Fermi energy position in N & P type semiconductor (5
Marks) [no derivation required , Def.1 mark; dig.1 mark; explanation 3 marks]
37. Explain change in position of Fermi energy in N & P type semiconductor with respect to
temperature. ) (5 marks) [no derivation required , Def.1 mark; dig.1 mark; explanation 3
marks]
38. What is Hall Effect? Derive an expression for Hall Voltage and Coefficient. [ dig.=1mark;
Mathematical Expression for Hall voltage=3mark ; Hall coefficient =1 mark]
39. What is superconductor? Explain Meissner Effect and effect of external magnetic field on
superconducting state of material. (5 Marks)[dig=1mark, explanation 4 marks]
40. What is the significance of Critical Temperature, Critical Magnetic Field for
superconductors?(5 Marks)
41. Distinguish between Type –I and II superconductor.(5 Marks) [5 distinguished points with
examples =5 MARKS]

Unit-V (CO5)
42. Explain principle and working of Ruby laser. ( 5marks )[ dig of ruby laser=1 mark; energy
level dig showing stimulated emission =1 mark, Explanation of construction and
working=3 marks]
43. Explain basic principles and construction of He-Ne gas laser.(5 marks)
[dig of ruby laser=1 mark; energy level dig showing stimulated emission =1 mark,
Explanation of construction and working=3 marks]
44. In short discuss applications of LASER [5 application =5 marks]
45. Explain i) Absorption ii) Spontaneous Emission iii) Stimulated Emission (5 marks
=explanation with energy level digs of absorption, spontaneous and stimulated emission)
46. Explain i) Population Inversion ii)Pumping method iii)optical resonator(5 marks
=explanation with digs)

Engineering Physics_JNEC, MGM University Page 4

 Question Bank

47. Discuss the different types of optical fibre with suitable diagram(5 marks) [Diagram of
propagation in single and multimode=1 mark, diagram showing R.I. =1 mark and
explanation=3 marks]
48. Explain the structure of optical fibre and mechanism of light propagation in to the fibre(5
marks) [dig of structure =1 mark; dig of propagation of light with TIR =1 mark;
Explanation =3 marks].
49. Derive an expression for acceptance angle and numerical aperture for an optical fibre (5
Marks)[ dig =1 mark; Derivation =4 marks]

Unit-VI (CO6)
50. Define the term unit cell, Coordination number, atomic radius and packing density.(5
marks)
51. Find the packing density (APF) of SC, BCC and FCC lattices. (5 marks) [ calculations of APF
for SC, BCC and FCC =5 marks]
52. Derive Bragg’s law for X-ray diffraction.[ dig=1 mark, statement and finding path
difference =4 marks]
53. For SC,BCC and FCC calculate (5 marks)
(i)Number of atoms per unit cell
(ii) Coordination number
(iii) Atomic radius
54. State Moseley’s law. What is its importance? (5 Marks)
55. State applications of X-rays. [5 marks = 5 different applications of x- rays]
56. What are characteristic X-rays? How are they produced?
57. Distinguish between continuous and characteristic X-ray emission spectra.
58. Draw a diagram of SC, BCC, and FCC lattice crystals and state their coordination number
(5 marks) (digs. of SC, BCC, FCC = 3 marks, statements of coordination no.2 marks)
59. Explain optical and magnetic properties of nano materials (5 marks)
60. Discuss Bottom up approach of synthesis of Nano-material. (5 marks)
61. Write a short note on : (i) Atomic Force Microscopy(ii) Scanning Electron Microscopy

Engineering Physics_JNEC, MGM University Page 5

 Question Bank

62. What do you mean by the top-down and bottom-up approaches of nanomaterial
synthesis? (5 marks)
63. Define nanotechnology. Give two examples each of materials naturally occurring at
nanoscale and man-made nanomaterials. (5 marks)

Sample Numericals:

Numericals:
1. A parallel beam of light (λ=5890 × 10-8cm) is incident on a thin glass plate (λ=1.5) such
that the angle of refraction into the plate is 600. Calculate the smallest thickness of
the glass plate which will appear dark by reflection. [Ans.-3.926 × 10 -5cm]
2. In Newton’s ring experiment , the diameter of the 4 th and 12th dark rings are
0.400cm and 0.700cm respectively. Find the diameter of the 20 th dark ring. [Ans=
0.906cm]
3. In Newton’s ring experiment , the diameter of the 10th ring changes from 1.4 to
1.27cm when a liquid is introduced between lens and the plate . Calculate refractive
index of the liquid. [Ans.=1.215]
4. A parallel beam of sodium light is allowed to be incident normally on a plane grating
having 4250 lines per cm and a second order spectral line is observed to be deviated
through 300. Calculate the wavelength of spectral line. [Ans.- 5883 A 0]
5. Monochromatic light of wavelength 6560 × 10-8 cm falls normally on a grating 2cm
wide. The first order spectrum is produced at an angle 18.140 from the normal. What
is the total No. of lines on the grating? ( Given Sin 18.140 = 0.3129) [Ans.-9541]

Engineering Physics_JNEC, MGM University Page 6

 Question Bank

6. The position and momentum of a 1.0keV electron are simultaneously measured. If

the position is located within 1 0A, what is percentage of uncertainty in momentum?
7. Calculate the uncertainty in measurement of momentum of an electron if the
uncertainty in locating it is 10A
8. If the uncertainty in position of an electron is 4*10-10 m Calculate the uncertainty in
its momentum.
9. With a slab of flint glass, the angle of polarization is found to be 62.24 0. Calculate the
refracting index of the flint glass.[Ans.-1.9128]
10. Calculate the specific rotation if the plane of polarization is turned through 26.4 0,
traversing 20cm length of 20% sugar solution. [Ans.-66 0]
11. A 15cm tube containing cane sugar solution (specific rotation 66 0) shows optical
rotation 70. Calculate the strength of the solution. [Ans.-0.07gm/cc]
12. A quartz crystal of thickness of 0.001 m is vibrating at resonance. Calculate the
fundamental frequency. (Given Y for quartz =7.9×1010 N/m2 and ρ for quartz = 2650
kg/m3) [Ans.=2730kHz]
13. A magnetic material of strength is found to be 106 ampere/m. If the magnetic
susceptibility of the material is 0.5 × 10-5, calculate the intensity of magnetization and
flux density in the material. [Ans.= 1.257 wb/m2]
14. An alpha particle of mass 6.65× 10-27kg and charge twice that of an electron but
positive travels at right angles to a magnetic field with a speed of 6 × 10 5m/s. The flux
density of the field is 0.2 wb/m2. (i) Calculate the force acting on alpha particle (ii)
Also calculate its acceleration [ Ans. F= 3.84× 10-14N and a= 5.77× 1012m/s2]
15. Calculate de-Broglie wavelength associated with a proton moving with a velocity
equal to 1/20 th, of the velocity of light. [Ans.= 2.64 × 10-14m]
16. Find energy of the neutron in units of electron volt whose de Broglie wavelength is 1
A0. Given mass of neutron = 1.674 × 10-27 kg, Plank’s constant h = 6.6 × 10-34 joules-
sec. [Ans.= 8.13× 10-2 eV]
17. If the uncertainty in position of an electron is 4 × 10 -10m, calculate the uncertainty in
its momentum. [Ans.= 1.65× 10-24kg m/sec.]

Engineering Physics_JNEC, MGM University Page 7

 Question Bank

18. The conductivity and the Hall Coefficient of N- Type semiconductor are 112 mho/m
and 1.25 *10-4 m3/C respectively Calculate charge carrier density and electron
mobility.
19. Determine numerical aperture of a step index fibre when the core refractive index is
n1=1.5 and the cladding refractive index n2=1.48. Find the maximum angle for
entrance of light if the fibre is placed in air.[Ans NA=0.24413 and ϴ=14.13]
20. If the potential difference applied to an X-ray tube is 25kV, calculate the cut-off
wavelength and the maximum frequency.
21. The spacing between principle planes of Nacl crystals is 2.82A 0. It is found that the
first order Bragg reflection occurs at an angle of 100. Calculate the wavelength of X-
rays.. [Ans.= 0.98A0]
22. Calculate the longest wavelength that can be analysed by a rock salt crystal of spacing
d=2.82A0 in the first order. [Ans.= 5.64A0]

Engineering Physics_JNEC, MGM University Page 8

Q1) what are newton rings and how are they formed? How can Refractive index
can be determined using fringes?
ANS- A Ring of Newton's is an Optical phenomenon that appears as a Ring of
dark-colored lights or bands when one piece of glass is Convex and rests on
another piece of flat glass. Therefore, there is space between them that is filled
with air. Light waves are said to cause this phenomenon as their interference
results in a brightening of light when their crests coincide, but the opposite occurs
when the crest meets the trough. This is described as the destruction of light.
During the transmission of light between the two pieces of glass, waves from
both the top and bottom surfaces of the air film interfere with each other.
Formation of Newton’s Rings
Light waves are interfered to create Newton's Rings when Reflections occur
between the top and bottom surfaces of the air film formed between the lens and
glass sheet.

According to the theory of waves of light, the formation of Rings of Newton's can
be explained as follows:
• In between the glass sheet and lens is an air film of varying thickness.
• Reflection and refraction takes place simultaneously when a ray strikes the
lens surface.
• Rays that are refracted have a phase change of 180 on the reflection when
they strike a glass sheet.
• If the path difference between two waves is m+ / *1, an interference happens
1
2

constructively, while destructively if the path difference between them is ml.

This produces alternate bright and dark Rings.

•
 •

Q2) explain the interference of light in wedge shaped film and prove
that for air film b=l/2t?
ANS-

Q3) explain the interference of light in thin for reflected ray?

ANS- Monochromatic light, travelling through a medium A and falling on a medium B, it will
diffract AND reflect passing through the surface separating the two mediums.

If you have a thin film of medium T on the medium B, then you will have diffraction AND
reflection on the surfaces AT and TB.

Now the reflected light from the surfaces AT and TB interfere, because we have a phase shift
of the light wave depending on the frequency of the light, the thickness of the thin film, the
angle of the light beam and the speed of light in the film; the interference could be
constructive, destructive or anything in between.
If the light is multichromatic, then the interference could be constructive for a same
wavelength and destructive for different wavelength; thus we get a multicolour pattern.

Typical examples are the colouring of the soap bubble (A: air, T: water+soap, B: air) or the
colouring pattern on the sea surface spoiled with oil/petrol (A: air, T: oil, B: water).
Q4) Incase of newton rings prove dn is directly proporstional to root n?

Q5)what is diffraction and what are types of diffraction?

ANS- Diffraction of light is the phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of the small
obstacles Diffraction can be classified into two types.
 • Fresnel diffraction: Fresnel diffraction is caused by the light from a point source. In Fresnel
diffraction, the incident and the diffracted wavelengths are spherical or cylindrical. The
source and the screen are at a finite distance from the obstacle causing diffraction. The
incident beam from the point source will be a divergent beam, whereas the diffracted beam is
a convergent beam.
• Fraunhofer’s diffraction: The incident and the diffracted wavefronts are both planes. The
incident and diffracted beams are parallel. The source and the screen are at infinite distance
from each other.

Q6) what is diffraction grating and how do you determine

wavelength using the grating?
ANS- A diffraction grating is an optical element, which separates polychromatic
light into its constituent wavelengths .The polychromatic light incident on the
grating is dispersed so that each wavelength is reflected from the grating at a
slightly different angle. The dispersion arises from the wavefront division and
interference of the incident radiation from the periodic structure of the grating.
(probably leave the question )
 Q7) differentiate between fresenlas and freso?

ANS-

Q8) Describe the theory of plane transmission grating?

[Link]. Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhofer Diffraction

The source and the screen are at a finite The source, and the screen is at an infinite
1
distance from the diffracting aperture. distance from the diffracting aperture.
For obtaining Fresnel diffraction, zone plates The single-double plane diffraction grating is
2
are used. used.
The wave-fronts are divergent either spherical The wave-fronts are the plane which is realized
3
and cylindrical. by using the convex lens.
Diffracted light is collected by a lens as in a
4 No mirror or lenses are used for observations.
telescope.
ANS- A plane transmission grating is a transparent plate or surface made of glass
or of similar material on which a very large number of equidistant parallel lines very
near to each other are scratched by a sharp diamond point. Here each line acts as
an opaque line and the space between two lines acts as a thin slit. Each centimeter
of this grating contains 5000 to 6000 lines. It can be easily constructed by drawing
a huge number of parallel spaced lines on a plane transparent plate-like glass with
a pointed diamond point. The lines on the plate are opaque to light and the spaces
between these lines are transparent.

Q9) discuss the different methods of polarization of light?

ANS-
Q10) Explain the Huygens theory for double refraction?
ANS- Huygen's Principle:
Various points of an arbitrary surface, when reached by a wavefront, become secondary sources of
light emitting secondary [Link] disturbance beyond the surface results from the
superposition of these secondary wavelets.
ANS-

Q11) what is angle of polarization and state the Brewesters law?

ANS- the angle at which unpolarized light or other electromagnetic radiation

must be incident upon a nonmetallic surface for the reflected radiation to
acquire maximum plane polarization.
Brewster’s law, relationship for light waves stating that the
maximum polarization of a ray of light may be achieved by letting the ray fall
on a surface of a transparent medium in such a way that the refracted ray
makes an angle of 90° with the reflected ray.
Q12) Define 1)angle of roation
2)optical activity
3)specific rotation
ANS- 1)Optical rotation, also known as polarization rotation or circular birefringence, is the rotation
of plane of polarization about the optical axis of linearly polarized light as it travels through certain
materials.

2)optical activity, the ability of a substance to rotate the plane

of polarization of a beam of light that is passed through it. The intensity of
optical activity is expressed in terms of a quantity, called specific rotation,
defined by an equation that relates the angle through which the plane is
rotated, the length of the light path through the sample, and the density of the
sample.

3)The specific optical rotation of a liquid substance is the angle of rotation measured as specified in
the monograph, calculated with reference to a layer 100mm thick and divided by the relative density
measured at the temperature at which the rotation is measured. A measure of the optically activity of
a sample is the rotation produced for a 1mm slab for a solid or a 100mm path length for a liquid. This
measure is called the specific rotation. Liquids usually rotate the light much less than solids.

Q13) what is specific rotation with neat lableled diagram explain the Laurent
half shade polarimeter?
ANS- The specific optical rotation of a liquid substance is the angle of rotation measured as
specified in the monograph, calculated with reference to a layer 100mm thick and divided by the
relative density measured at the temperature at which the rotation is measured. A measure of the
opticall activity of a sample is the rotation produced for a 1mm slab for a solid or a 100mm path
length for a liquid. This measure is called the specific rotation. Liquids usually rotate the light much
less than solids.

A polarimeter is an instrument used for determining the optical rotation of solutions

Construction: - glass tube for holding the solution between Nicol prisms –

monochromatic light incidents on the polarizer (N1) –

light transmitted is plane polarized –

polarized beam passes through the halfshade plate and glass tube containing the solution–

Light emerging from the solution incidents on the analyzer( N2) –

Light is observed through the telescope T –

Analyzing Nicol (N2) can be rotated about the axis of the tube and the rotation can be measured.
Q1) What are ultrasonic waves? Explain the magnetostriction method
for production of ultrasonic waves?
ANS- Ultrasonic waves are sound waves whose frequencies are higher than those
of waves normally audible to the human ear. The angular frequencies of the
ultrasonic waves produced in laboratories lie from about 105 sec−1 to about 3 ×
109 sec−1, the former value representing the limit of audibility of the human ear.
When magnetic field is applied across the length of a ferromagnetic rod such as Nickel, then
change in the length of rod is observed. This is called Magnetostriction. The charge in length is
propotional to the strength of megnetic field. The increase in length is very small in practice.
Amongst all ferromagnetic substances, increase in length is maximum for Nickel.
Construction: The circuit diagram of magnetostriction ultrasonic generator is as shown
in the figure1 A short permanently magnetized nickel rod is clamped in the middle
between two knife edges. A coil L1 is wound on the right hand portion of the rod. C is a
variable capacitor. L1 and C1 form the resonant circuit of the collector-tuned oscillator.
Coil L2 wound on the LHS of the rod is connected in the base circuit. The coil L2 is used
as a feedback loop.

Q2) What are ultrasonic waves? Explain the piezoelectric method for
production of ultrasonic waves?
ANS- Ultrasonic waves are sound waves whose frequencies are higher than those
of waves normally audible to the human ear. The angular frequencies of the
ultrasonic waves produced in laboratories lie from about 105 sec−1 to about 3 ×
109 sec−1, the former value representing the limit of audibility of the human ear
Piezoelectric Effect:-
• When a mechanical compression or tension is applied to some
crystals like quartz, a potential difference is developed across the
crystal which is proportional to the applied pressure. This
phenomenon is known as Piezo-electric Effect.
• Also if the potential difference is applied across the crystal, a
mechanical compression or tension is developed. This is called
Inverse Piezo-electric Effect.

• A variable capacitor (C) and an inductor (L2) form a tank circuit.

• The frequency of the oscillations can be changed by changing the

value of capacitance.
• When the circuit is closed, the current flows through the circuit and
charges the capacitor.
• Then the capacitor starts discharging through the inductor, thus the
electric energy is stored in the form of electric and magnetic field.
• Thus electric oscillations are produced in the tank circuit.

• The frequency of this oscillating electricity is given by

f=12πL2C√f=12πL2C
• With the help of the other electronic components including a
transistor, electrical oscillations are produced continuously.
• This is fed to the secondary circuit connected to Quartz crystal (Q).
 • The oscillating electric field is converted to mechanical vibration of
crystal owing to the piezoelectric effect.
• This vibration produces sound wave of the frequency equal to the
frequency of vibration, which is the frequency of electric oscillations.
• In this way ultrasonic sound waves can be produced.

Q3) Discuss the important applications of ultrasonic waves?

ANS-1) Ultrasonic's are used in the detection of aircraft, submarines.
Ultrasonic's generated by a piezoelectric crystal generator are transmitted towards a
target. These waves are reflected by an aircraft or submarine coming across their path.
The reflected beam is detected by means of a quartz detector. The device used for the
purpose is called SONAR – sound navigation and ranging.
2) The reflection of ultrasonic is used to estimate the depth of the sea. By measuring the
elapsed time between the transmission and reception, after reflection from the bottom,
of ultrasonic waves, the depth of the sea can be computed. The instrument used for the
purpose is called a fathometer.
3) Heat is produced when an intense beam of ultrasonic's passes through a substance.
Joints of thermoplastic materials can be welded homogeneously and water can be
boiled with the heat thus generated.

4) Ultrasonic cleaning machines have been developed to clean very small objects such
as hypodermic needles, minute parts of watches etc.

5) Ultrasonic's waves of frequency 60 kHz are used for removing grease, dust etc. from
metals. They are also used in ultrasonic washing machines.

6)Ultrasonic are used to detect flaws in metals. They are used in metallurgy to prepare
alloys of uniform composition.

Q4) what do you mean by 1) magnetization

2) permeability
3) susceptibility of magnetic material
ANS- 1) Magnetization, also termed as magnetic polarization, is a vector quantity that
gives the measure of the density of permanent or induced dipole moment in a given
magnetic material. As we know, magnetization results from the magnetic moment,
which results from the motion of electrons in the atoms or the spin of electrons or the
nuclei. The net magnetization results from the response of a material to the external
magnetic field, together with any unbalanced magnetic dipole moment that is inherent in
the material due to the motion in its electrons as mentioned earlier.

2) Magnetic permeability also referred to as permeability in electromagnetism is a

property of a magnetic material which supports the formation of a magnetic field.
Magnetic permeability is a property that basically allows magnetic lines of force to pass
through a material.
Magnetic permeability is defined as the ratio of the magnetic induction to the magnetic
intensity. It is a scalar quantity and denoted by the symbol μ. Magnetic permeability
helps us measure a material’s resistance to the magnetic field or measure of the degree
to which magnetic field can penetrate through a material. If the material has greater
magnetic permeability, greater will be the conductivity for magnetic lines of force.
3) Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality constant that indicates the
degree of magnetization of a material in response to an applied magnetic field. It is
caused by interactions of electrons and nuclei with the externally applied magnetic field.
The mathematical definition of magnetic susceptibility is the ratio of magnetization to
applied magnetizing field intensity. This is a dimensionless quantity.

X=M/H
Where,

• χ: magnetic susceptibility
• M: magnetization
• H: field intensity

Q5) write a short note on dielectric constant?

ANS- A dielectric is a material which has poor electrical conductivity but inherits an
ability to store an electrical charge(due to Dielectric polarization). Thus exhibiting
only displacement current making it ideal to build a capacitor; to store and return
electrical energy.

Dielectric Constant Formula

It is mathematically expressed as:
Where, k=e/e0

• κ is the dielectric constant

• 𝜺 is the permittivity of the substance
• 𝜺0 is the permittivity of the free space

• Frequency: As the frequency of the applied voltage increases, the value of the
dielectric constant becomes non-linear.
• Applied voltage: When a direct current voltage is applied, the value of the
dielectric constant reduces while applying alternating current voltage would
increase the value of the dielectric constant.
• Temperature: When the temperature is low, the alignment of the molecules in the
dielectric material is difficult. By increasing the temperature, the dipoles in the
dielectric material become dominant resulting in an increase in the dielectric
constant. This temperature is known as the transition temperature. If the
temperature rises above the transition temperature, then there will be a gradual
decrease in the dielectric constant.
• Humidity and moisture: The strength of the dielectric material decreased when
either the humidity or the moisture is increased.

Q6) what is dielectric Polarization? discuss its types?

ANS- Dielectric polarization is the term given to the bheaviour of the material when
external electric field is applied to it . It happens when the dipole moment start’s inside
the insulating material because of external applied electric field.

• Ionic polarization: When elements like NaCl and KCl contribute to the relative
permittivity, ionic polarization occurs. In this polarization, the net electric field is
zero.

Orientational polarization: This occurs due to the permanent dipole moment in a

material. It occurs in elements such as HCl and H2O.
 Q7) explain in brief the effect of frequency and
temperature on dielectrics?
ANS-
• Frequency: As the frequency of the applied voltage increases, the value of the
dielectric constant becomes non-linear.
• Applied voltage: When a direct current voltage is applied, the value of the
dielectric constant reduces while applying alternating current voltage would
increase the value of the dielectric constant.
• Temperature: When the temperature is low, the alignment of the molecules in the
dielectric material is difficult. By increasing the temperature, the dipoles in the
dielectric material become dominant resulting in an increase in the dielectric
constant. This temperature is known as the transition temperature. If the
temperature rises above the transition temperature, then there will be a gradual
decrease in the dielectric constant.

Q8) what is magnetic dipole moment?

ANS- A magnetic moment is a quantity that represents the magnetic strength
and orientation of a magnet or any other object that produces a magnetic field.
More precisely, a magnetic moment refers to a magnetic dipole moment. A
magnetic dipole is a magnetic north pole and a magnetic south pole separated by
a small distance.

Q9) Distinguish between para, dia , and ferro magnetic

materials?
ANS-
 Q 10) explain types of magnetic materials?
• ANS- Diamagnetic materials

These materials are barely magnetized when placed in a magnetic field. Magnetic dipoles
in these substances tend to align in opposition to the applied field. In effect, they produce
an internal magnetic field that opposes the applied field and the substance tends to repel
the external field around it.
This opposing field disappears as soon as the external field is removed.
Ex: Gold, water, mercury and even animals!

• Paramagnetic materials
In these materials the magnetic dipoles in the Magnetic Materials tend to align along the
applied magnetic field and thus reinforcing the applied magnetic field. Such substances
are attracted by a magnet if it applies a sufficiently strong field. It must be noted that such
materials are still feeble magnetized and the magnetization disappears as soon as the
external field is removed. Ex: Liquid oxygen, sodium, platinum, salts of iron and nickel.

• Ferromagnetic materials

We are most familiar with these materials as they exhibit the strongest magnetic
behaviour. Magnetic dipoles in these materials are arranged into domains where the
arrangements of individual magnetic dipoles are essentially perfect that can produce
strong magnetic fields. Normally, these domains are usually randomly arranged and thus
the magnetic field of each domain is cancelled by another and the entire material does
not show any magnetic behaviour. However when an external field is applied, the
domains reorient themselves to reinforce the external field and produce a strong internal
magnetic field that is along the external field. Upon, removal of the external field, most of
the domains stay put and continues to be aligned in the direction of the (erstwhile)
magnetic field. Thus, the magnetic field of the Magnetic Materials persists even when the
external field disappears.
Antiferromagnetic substances/materials-
When these materials are kept in the presence of the strong magnetic field, they get
magnetized weakly in the direction of the magnetic field. This is known as
antiferromagnetism.
The antiferromagnetic materials are commonly found among the transition metal
compounds. Hematite, chromium, alloys of iron manganese and oxides of nickel are the
examples of antiferromagnetic material

Q11) What is magnetic domain ? draw a neat diagram of

b-h curve and discuss its features?
ANS- A magnetic domain is a region within a magnetic material in which the
magnetization is in a uniform direction. This means that the individual magnetic
moments of the atoms are aligned with one another and they point in the same
direction.
From hysteresis loops, we can determine a number of magnetic properties
about a material. Such as the retentivity, residual magnetism (or residual flux),
coercive force, permeability, and the reluctance.
Coercive force is defined as the negative value of magnetizing force (-H) that
reduces residual flux density of a material to zero.

Residual Flux Density

Residual flux density is the certain value of magnetic flux per unit area that
remains in the magnetic material without presence of magnetizing force (i.e.
H = 0).
Definition of Retentivity
It is defined as the capacity for retaining magnetism after the action of the magnetizing
force has ceased.
 1. Smaller hysteresis loop area symbolizes less hysteresis loss.

2. Hysteresis loop provides the value of retentivity and coercivity of a

material. Thus the way to choose perfect material to make
permanent magnet, core of machines becomes easier.

3. From B-H graph, residual magnetism can be determined and thus

choosing of material for electromagnets is easy.

Q12) what are positive rays? Explain construction

and working of Bainbridge Spectrograph?

ANS- An anode ray is a beam of positive ions that is created by certain

types of gas-discharge tubes.

A Bainbridge mass spectrometer basically consists of a discharge tube

which produces ions. The discharge tube discharges a beam of positive ions
into a tube. These positive ions are produced when one or more electrons
are removed from any atom. The tube has two slits named S1 and S2 which
makes them collimated. After that the beam of positive charge passes
through a velocity selector. This velocity selector allows only the particles of
a given velocity. This velocity selection is done by the combined action of
magnetic field and electric field. This field consists of two
plates P1 and P2 The magnetic field and electric field are at perpendicular
to each other which nullifies their effect and hence they don’t create any
deflection in the particle.
Q13) Discuss the e/m by thomson’s method?

ANS-
Q1) What are positive rays? How they are produced?
ANS- The positive rays also known as canal rays which are positively charged rays
obtained from the gas molecule by removing the electrons. Positively charged rays
depend only upon the nature of gas filled in the discharge tube and cannot exist without
the gas present in the discharged tube.
The apparatus of this diagram shown in the following diagram –

-Positive rays originate from anode and are directed toward the cathode which is a
negatively charged electrode. These rays are mainly formed due to the ionisation of gas
present in the discharge tube.
-A very high voltage is applied across the electrode which is required for the formation
of these rays because ionisation of gases is possible under high pressure. But the
nature of positive rays does not depend upon the applied potential across the electrode.

Q2) Derive an expression for e/m by Thomson’s method?

ANS-

Determination of e/m

Now the magnetic induction is switched off. The deflection Q Q1 = y caused by

the electric field alone is measured. At the instant when the cathode rays enter the
region between the plates P1 and P2, initial velocity in the downward direction u = 0
Acceleration along the downward direction a = Ee/m , where m is the mass of each
cathode ray particle.
Time for which the electron moves in the electric field t = l/v where l is the length
of either of the plates and v is the velocity of the electron.
The deflection produced on the cathode rays along the downward direction in the
electric field is given by
y1 = � (Ee/m) (l/v)2 �� (2)
Substituting for v from equation (1) in equation (2) we get
y1 = 1/2 (Ee/m)(l2/E2)B2 = � ( el2B2 ) / (mE)
y = K y1, where K is a constant determined by the geometry of the discharge tube.
Substituting for y1 we get,
y = K (1 e l2 B2)/2mE ��.. (3)
e/m = 2yE / K l2 B2 ���.. (4)

By substituting the known values in the above relation e/m of an electron can
be calculated. The value of e/m calculated using this experiment was found to be
1.7592 � 1011 C kg-1

Q3)
What is De Broglie hypothesis? Show that the wavelength λ
associated with an electron of mass m and kinetic energy E is given by 𝜆
= ℎ √2𝑚𝐸 where, h is Plank’s constant?
ANS- [Link]
mass-m-and-kinetic-energy-e-is-given-by/ (look for derivation on this link)

de Broglie equation states that a matter can act as waves much like light and
radiation, which also behave as waves and particles. The equation further
explains that a beam of electrons can also be diffracted just like a beam of light. In
essence, the de Broglie equation helps us understand the idea of matter having a
wavelength. Electromagnetic radiation, exhibit dual nature of a particle (having a
momentum) and wave (expressed in frequency, wavelength). Microscopic
particle-like electrons also proved to possess this dual nature property.

Q4) What is Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle? Give experimental

illustration of it.

ANS- Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to measure

or calculate exactly, both the position and the momentum of an object. This
principle is based on the wave-particle duality of matter.

Q5) With neat diagram explain construction and working of Bainbridge Mass
Spectrograph?

ANS-

A Bainbridge mass spectrometer basically consists of a discharge tube which

produces ions. The discharge tube discharges a beam of positive ions into a tube.
These positive ions are produced when one or more electrons are removed from
any atom. The tube has two slits named S1S1 and S2S2 which makes them
collimated. After that the beam of positive charge passes through a velocity
selector. This velocity selector allows only the particles of a given velocity. This
velocity selection is done by the combined action of magnetic field and electric
field. This field consists of two plates P1P1 and P2P2 . The magnetic field and
electric field are at perpendicular to each other which nullifies their effect and
hence they don’t create any deflection in the particle.

Let BB be the magnetic field and EE be the electric field.

Force exerted on a particle on a particle due to the magnetic field is,
Forcem=qBvForcem=qBv
Here BB is the magnetic field, qq is the charge on the particle and vv is the
velocity of the particle.
Force exerted on a particle on a particle due to the electric field is,
Forcee=qEForcee=qE
Here EE is the electric field and qq is the charge on the particle.
As the force exerted on a particle on a particle due to the magnetic field is
nullifying force exerted on a particle on a particle due to the electric field,
⇒qBv=qE⇒qBv=qE
⇒v=EB⇒v=EB
So only the particles with the above velocity will pass the velocity selector.
After the velocity selector, the particles pass through another slit S3S3 and enters
the vacuum chamber. This chamber has a strong magnetic field of B′B′ which acts
at right angle to the plane of paper. This directs the particles in a centripetal way
and causes the particles to strike the photographic plane.

Q6) Explain in detail the working of G-M counter?

ANS-

The GM counter consists of a hollow metallic chamber as shown in the figure that
acts as a cathode.
A thin wire anode is also placed along its axis.
The chamber has a sealed window, through which the radiation enters the
chamber.
The chamber is filled with an inert gas at low pressure.
There is a counter connected to this system to measure the radiation.

Working
The chamber is filled with an inert gas (helium, neon, or argon) at low pressure. A
high voltage is applied to this chamber. The metallic chamber will conduct
electricity. When radiation enters the chamber through the window, the photons
in the radiation will ionize the inert gas inside the chamber. This will make the gas
conductive. The electrons produced due to ionization are accelerated due to the
potential that we applied and these electrons cause even more ionization. The
ionized electrons travel towards the anode. The anode is connected to a counter.
The counter counts the electrons reaching the anode. This is how we measure
radiation.
Q7) Derive an expression for time dependent & independent
Schrodinger equation?

ANS-

Q8) Describe Physical Significance of wave function?

ANS- The wave function has no physical significance but:

1. It explains the motion of quantum mechanics particle when operated with

Schrodinger’s Wave Equation.
2. Ψ x Ψ* gives probability density function for a particle. Ψ* is the complex
conjugate of Ψ.
3. The probability of finding a particle at any volume dV is given by Ψ x Ψ* dV.
4. The probability of finding a particle in whole space is unity. i.e. Integration of Ψ x
Ψ* dV = 1. This is called normalizing condition.
Q8) Write Maxwell’s equations in integral and differential form and give its physical significance?

ANS-

in the case of the first two (Gauss’s Laws for electricity and magnetism) that is done via the
divergence theorem which “states that the surface integral of a vector field over a closed
surface, which is called the flux through the surface, is equal to the volume integral of the
divergence over the region inside the surface.”
For the last two (Faraday’s Law of Induction and Ampère’s Circuital Law) use the curl
theorem (Kelvin–Stokes theorem) which “relates the integral of the curl of the vector field
over some surface, to the line integral of the vector field around the boundary of the
surface”.

Q9) Deduce the equation of motion for an electromagnetic wave in free space?

ANS-

Q10) Derive an expression for electromagnetic wave in free space and

find the value of velocity of light in free space?
ANS-
Q1) Explain formation of energy bands in solids?
ANS-

The band theory of solids is different from the others because the atoms are arranged very
close to each other such that the energy levels of the outermost orbital electrons are affected.
But the energy level of the innermost electrons is not affected by the neighbouring atoms. The
three energy bands in solids are

• Valence band
• Conduction band
• Forbidden band
Bond theory solids

• In atoms, electrons are filled in respective energy orbits following Pauli’s exclusion
principle.
• In molecules, Two atomic orbitals combine together to form a molecular orbit with two
distinct energy levels.
• In solids, 1023 stacked up lines confined in a tiny space would look like a band. Thereby
forming energy continuum called energy bands.
• This theory helps to visualise the difference between conductor, semiconductors and
insulator by plotting available energies for an electron in a material

Q2) Define Fermi Energy level . Discuss Fermi energy position in intrinsic
semiconductor?

ANS- Fermi Energy Level

The reason for the existence of this energy level is due to Pauli’s exclusion principle,
which states two fermions cannot occupy that same quantum state. So, if a system has
more than one fermion, each fermion has a different set of magnetic quantum
numbers associated with it.
The Fermi Temperature can be defined as the energy of the Fermi level divided by the
Boltzmann’s constant. It is also the temperature at which the energy of the electron is
equal to the Fermi energy. It is the measure of the electrons in the lower states of
energy in metal.
The Fermi-level in an intrinsic semiconductor is nearly midway between
the conductive and valence band. Fermi level is the highest energy state
occupied by electrons in a material at absolute zero temperature. Similarly,
the Fermi level for a p-type lies near the valence band.

Q3) What is Fermi-Dirac distribution function?

ANS- The Fermi-Dirac distribution applies to fermions, particles with half-

integer spin which must obey the Pauli exclusion principle. Each type of distribution
function has a normalization term multiplying the exponential in the denominator
which may be temperature dependent. For the Fermi-Dirac case, that term is usually
written:

The significance of the Fermi energy is most clearly seen by setting T=0. At absolute
zero, the probability is =1 for energies less than the Fermi energy and zero for
energies greater than the Fermi energy.

Q4) Define Fermi Energy level. Explain Fermi energy position in N & P type
semiconductor?
ANS- The reason for the existence of this energy level is due to Pauli’s exclusion
principle, which states two fermions cannot occupy that same quantum state. So, if a
system has more than one fermion, each fermion has a different set of magnetic
quantum numbers associated with it.
The Fermi Temperature can be defined as the energy of the Fermi level divided by the
Boltzmann’s constant. It is also the temperature at which the energy of the electron is
equal to the Fermi energy. It is the measure of the electrons in the lower states of
energy in metal.
1) In pure germanium semi-conductor, the Fermi level lies in the forbidden
gap, very close to conduction band
2) In an N-type semiconductor, the Fermi levels lies in the Forbidden gap, very
close to conduction band
3) In an P-type semiconductor, the Fermi levels lies in the Forbidden gap, very
close to valence band
4) With rising in the temperature the Fermi level moves towards the center of
the Forbidden gap, both types of semi-conductors
5) N-type semiconductor is better than P-type semiconductor as electrons
have more mobility than holes.
Q5) Explain change in position of Fermi energy in N & P type semiconductor with
respect to temperature?
ANS- In pure germanium semi-conductor, the Fermi level lies in the
forbidden gap, very close to conduction band
1) In an N-type semiconductor, the Fermi levels lies in the Forbidden gap, very
close to conduction band
2) In an P-type semiconductor, the Fermi levels lies in the Forbidden gap, very
close to valence band
3) With rising in the temperature the Fermi level moves towards the center of
the Forbidden gap, both types of semi-conductors
4) N-type semiconductor is better than P-type semiconductor as electrons
have more mobility than holes.
Q6) What is Hall Effect? Derive an expression for Hall Coefficient and mobility of
charge carriers?
ANS- Hall Effect is a process in which a transverse electric field is developed in a solid
material when the material carrying an electric current is placed in a magnetic field that
is perpendicular to the current.

[Link]
for--1/ (Look link for derviation of Halls coefficient)

Q7) What is superconductor? Explain Meissner Effect and effect of external

magnetic field on superconducting state of material?
ANS- Superconductivity is the ability of certain materials to conduct
electric current with practically zero resistance. This capacity produces
interesting and potentially useful effects. For a material to behave as a
superconductor, low temperatures are required.
 (image for definition of
superconductor)

Meissner effect, the expulsion of a magnetic field from the interior of a

material that is in the process of becoming a superconductor, that
is, losing its resistance to the flow of electrical currents when cooled
below a certain temperature, called the transition temperature, usually
close to absolute zero.
The effect of an external magnetic field on a superconducting state of a
material is called superconductivity.

• When a superconducted material is introduced into an external magnetic field,

it produces an equal and opposite magnetic field of its own.
• Electric current in a superconducting loop has been observed to last for years
and theoretically, can last forever.

Q8) What is the significance of Critical Temperature, Critical Magnetic Field for superconductors?

ANS- ritical magnetic field:

• If an increasing magnetic field is applied to a superconductor at a constant

temperature below the critical temperature, then the material will make a
transition from the superconducting state to the normal state when the field
reaches a well-defined strength. This field at which the superconductivity is
destroyed is known as the critical magnetic field strength Bc
• If the field is reduced, with the temperature held constant, the material returns to
the superconducting state at the same critical field strength Bc
• Critical magnetic field strength depends on temperature, and its temperature
dependence is shown
The critical temperature for superconductors is the temperature at which the
electrical resistivity of a metal drops to zero. The transition is so sudden and
complete that it appears to be a transition to a different phase of matter; this
superconducting phase is described by the BCS theory.

Materials with critical temperatures in the range 120 K have received a great deal of
attention because they can be maintained in the superconducting state with liquid
nitrogen (77 K).

Q9) Distinguish between Type –I and II superconductor?

ANS- Soft Superconductors (Type I) :

1. Soft superconductors are those which can tolerate impurities without affecting the
superconducting properties.

2. They have low critical field.

3. Show complete Meissner effect.

4. The current flows through the surface only.

5. Eg. Tin, Aluminium.

Hard Superconductors (Type II) :

1. Hard superconductors are those which cannot tolerate impurities, i.e., the impurity affects
the superconducting property.

2. They have high critical field.

3. Hard super conductors trap magnetic flux and hence Meissner effect is not complete.

4. It is found that current flows throughout the material.

5. Eg. Tantalum, Neobium.

Q1) Explain principle and working of Ruby laser?

ANS- The ruby laser is a three level solid-state laser. In a ruby laser, optical
pumping technique is used to supply energy to the laser medium. Optical
pumping is a technique in which light is used as energy source to raise
electrons from lower energy level to the higher energy level.

Consider a ruby laser medium consisting of three energy levels E1, E2,
E3 with N number of electrons.

We assume that the energy levels will be E1 < E2 < E3. The energy level
E1 is known as ground state or lower energy state, the energy level E2 is
known as metastable state, and the energy level E3 is known as pump
state.

Let us assume that initially most of the electrons are in the lower energy
state (E1) and only a tiny number of electrons are in the excited states
(E2 and E3)

When light energy is supplied to the laser medium (ruby), the electrons in
the lower energy state or ground state (E1) gains enough energy and jumps
into the pump state (E3).

The lifetime of pump state E3 is very small (10-8 sec) so the electrons in the
pump state do not stay for long period. After a short period, they fall into the
metastable state E2 by releasing radiationless energy. The lifetime of
metastable state E2 is 10-3 sec which is much greater than the lifetime of
pump state E3. Therefore, the electrons reach E2 much faster than they
leave E2. This results in an increase in the number of electrons in the
metastable state E2 and hence population inversion is achieved.

Q2) Explain basic principles and construction of He-Ne gas laser?

ANS- The gain medium of a helium-neon laser is made up of the mixture of

helium and neon gas contained in a glass tube at low pressure. The partial
pressure of helium is 1 mbar whereas that of neon is 0.1 mbar.

The gas mixture is mostly comprised of helium gas. Therefore, in order to

achieve population inversion, we need to excite primarily the lower energy
state electrons of the helium atoms.

In He-Ne laser, neon atoms are the active centers and have energy levels
suitable for laser transitions while helium atoms help in exciting neon
atoms.

Electrodes (anode and cathode) are provided in the glass tube to send the
electric current through the gas mixture. These electrodes are connected to
a DC power supply.

Q3) In short discuss applications of LASER?

ANS- 1)Lasers are used for bloodless surgery.

 2) Lasers are used to destroy kidney stones.

3) Lasers are used in cancer diagnosis and therapy.

4) Laser light is used in optical fiber communications to send information

over large distances with low loss.

5) Laser light is used in underwater communication networks.

6) Lasers are used in space communication, radars and satellites

7) Lasers are used in computers to retrieve stored information from a

Compact Disc (CD).

8) Lasers are used to store large amount of information or data in CD-

ROM.

9) Lasers are used to measure the pollutant gases and other

contaminants of the atmosphere.

10) Lasers are used in electronic industries for trimming the components

of Integrated Circuits (ICs).

Q4) Explain i) Absorption ii) Spontaneous Emission iii) Stimulated

Emission?
ANS- 1) Absorption is a chemical or physical phenomenon in which the
molecules, atoms and ions of the substance getting absorbed enters into the
bulk phase (gas, liquid or solid) of the material in which it is taken up.
Absorption is the condition in which something gets mixed or absorbed
completely in another substance.
2) If atoms (or molecules) are excited by some means other than heating, the
spontaneous emission is called luminescence. For example, fireflies are
luminescent. And there are different forms of luminescence depending on how excited
atoms are produced (electroluminescence, chemiluminescence etc.).
3) Stimulated emission of radiation: When an electron is in a different energy level of the
fundamental level and returns to the ground state through an incident photon, a new
photon is generated with exactly the same frequency, direction and phase to the
incident photon.

Q5) Explain i) Population Inversion ii)Pumping method iii)optical

resonator
ANS- 1) A population inversion is a condition of the laser medium, where a
system consisting of a group of molecules or atoms exists in a higher
excited state, with more quantum systems than that of the lower energy
state of a laser transition.
2) Laser pumping is the act of energy transfer from an external source into the gain
medium of a laser. The energy is absorbed in the medium, producing excited states in
its atoms. There are two methods for pumping lasers using sunlight,
end-pumping and side-pumping. There are advantages and
disadvantages for each. The end-pumping scheme can be used on very
small scales, but the pump light enters the laser crystal entirely from one
end.
3) An optical resonator (or resonant optical cavity) is an arrangement of
optical components which allows a beam of light to circulate in a closed
path. Such resonators can be made in very different forms. The resonator is
formed by placing a pair of mirrors facing each other so that light emitted along the line
between the mirrors is reflected back and forth. There are two basic types of optical
resonator modes. These are: the standing wave resonator, and the travelling wave
resonator. The travelling wave resonator is also referred to as the ring resonator.

Q6) Discuss the different types of optical fibre with suitable diagram?
ANS- The types of optical fibres depend on the refractive index, materials used, and
mode of propagation of light.
The classification based on the refractive index is as follows:

• Step Index Fibres: It consists of a core surrounded by the cladding, which has a
single uniform index of refraction.
• Graded Index Fibres: The refractive index of the optical fibre decreases as the
radial distance from the fibre axis increases.
The classification based on the materials used is as follows:

• Plastic Optical Fibres: The polymethylmethacrylate is used as a core material

for the transmission of light.
 • Glass Fibres: It consists of extremely fine glass fibres.
The classification based on the mode of propagation of light is as follows:

• Single-Mode Fibres: These fibres are used for long-distance transmission of

signals.
• Multimode Fibres: These fibres are used for short-distance transmission of
signals.

Q7) Explain the structure of optical fibre and mechanism of light propagation in
to the fibre?
ANS-

• Transducer basically converts information from source into electrical signal.

• Optical source (LASER or LED) converts electrical signal into optical (light)
signal.
• Optical channel is optical fibre.
• Optical detector converts optical signal into electrical signal. Avalanche photo-
diode is used as optical detector.
The basic structure of an optical fiber consists of three parts; the core, the cladding, and
the coating or buffer. The basic structure of an optical fiber is shown in figure 2-10. The
core is a cylindrical rod of dielectric material. Dielectric material conducts no electricity.
Light propagates mainly along the core of the fiber. The core is generally made of glass.
The core is described as having a radius of (a) and an index of refraction n1. The core
is surrounded by a layer of material called the cladding.

Q8) Derive an expression for acceptance angle and numerical aperture for an optical fibre?
State important applications of optical fibre?

ANS-
• Medical
Used as light guides, imaging tools and also as lasers for surgeries
• Defense/Government
Used as hydrophones for seismic waves and SONAR , as wiring in aircraft,
submarines and other vehicles and also for field networking
• Data Storage
Used for data transmission
• Telecommunications
Fiber is laid and used for transmitting and receiving purposes
• Networking
Used to connect users and servers in a variety of network settings and help increase
the speed and accuracy of data transmission
• Industrial/Commercial
Used for imaging in hard to reach areas, as wiring where EMI is an issue, as sensory
devices to make temperature, pressure and other measurements, and as wiring in
automobiles and in industrial settings
• Broadcast/CATV
Broadcast/cable companies are using fiber optic cables for wiring CATV, HDTV,
internet, video on-demand and other applications
50. Define unit cell, coordination number, atomic radius and packing density
Ans: The smallest repeating unit of the crystal lattice is the unit cell, the building block of a
[Link] unit cells which are all identical are defined in such a way that they fill space without
overlapping. It is made up of numerous unit cells. One of the three constituent particles takes up
every lattice point.A unit cell can either be primitive cubic, body-centered cubic (BCC) or face-
centered cubic (FCC).
The Coordination number of an atom in a given molecule or a crystal refers to the total number
of atoms, ions, or molecules bonded to the atom in question. ‘Ligancy’ is another term used to
refer to the coordination number of an atom.
An atomic radius is half the distance between adjacent atoms of the same element in a
molecule.
Packing density is defined as the ratio of the solid volume to the total volume.

51. Find the packing density (APF) of SC, BCC, FCC lattices.
Ans:For the simple cubic cell, the lattice parameter is just twice the radius. Now, in terms of the
radius, we can say that the volume of the cube is:
V = 8 * r^3
Each atom is a sphere, so the volume per atom is:
V = 4/3 * pi * r^3
where r is the radius of the sphere.
But, how many atoms do we have per unit cell? At first glance, it looks like there are 8 atoms: on
on each corner of the cell.
However, you need to consider that when you stack unit cells to make the full crystal, each
corner is shared with 8 cells. So each of the 8 atoms contributes ⅛ of its total volume. In total,
there is 1 full atom per unit cell.
Now if we divide the volume of an atom by the volume of the unit cell, the atomic packing factor
for a simple cubic crystal is:
APF sc = (8/8 * 4/3*pi*r^3)/8*r^3
= pi/6 = 52%
BCC:
For some radius of the atoms, we can calculate their volume using
V = 4/3 * pi * r^3
The volume of the cube is a^3 in terms of the lattice constant a, so let’s write r in terms of r.
In a BCC crystal, the body diagonal is the close-packed direction.
Since the body diagonal is the close-packed direction, the atoms touch each other. That means
the body diagonal will be a multiple of the atomic radius. In this case, the body diagonal is 4r.
Now, it’s time to use the pythagorean theorem (you could also use 3D vector math, but if you
don’t know what that is, the trigonometry is not so complicated).
First, make a triangle with the body diagonal as the hypotenuse. This is the green line in the
image above. One of your triangle legs will be the cube’s side, . The other leg will be the face
diagonal. You can use any variable you like for this length; I will choose .
Using the pythagorean theorem, a^2 + d^2 = 4r^2.
Now, let’s find d. We can make another triangle from a different 3D view; this time our triangle
has d on the hypotenuse and a for both legs.
Again using the pythagorean theorem, we see d^2 = 2a^2.
Now we can plug d^2 into our first pythagorean theorem.
a^2 + 2a^2 = 4r^2
So,
A = (4/(3)*½)*r
Now that we can write the volume of the cube in terms of the atomic radius, the rest is easy!
We only need to figure out how many atoms are in each unit cell. As in the simple cubic
example, there are 8 corner atoms. Each corner atom contributes ⅛ of its volume to the unit
cell, so that’s equal to 1 whole atom.
Additionally, there is an atom in the middle of the cell. Since that entire atom is inside the cell, it
fully contributes its volume.
In total, there are 2 atoms in the BCC unit cell. If we divide the volume of 2 atoms by the volume
of the unit cell (=a^3), we find that the atomic packing factor for a body-centered cubic crystal is:
APF bcc = ((3)*½ * pi)/8 = 68%
FCC:
In an FCC crystal, any face diagonal is the close-packed direction. I hope you can see this in
the image below.
The face diagonal, therefore, has a length of . We can get the lattice constant in terms of
with a simple application of the pythagorean theorem.
Draw a triangle with the face diagonal (length =) as the hypotenuse. Both legs will be .
So will be the volume of the unit cell, so let’s figure out how many atoms are in the unit cell.
As we’ve seen several times already, there will be 8 atoms on each corner, each contributing ⅛
of its total volume to the unit cell.
Additionally, there are 6 faces, with half an atom on each face (since faces are shared between
two cells, an atom on the face would contribute ½ of its volume to each cell).
In total, there are 4 atoms in the FCC unit cell. Dividing the volume of 4 atoms by the volume of
the cube gives us the atomic packing factor for a face-centered cubic crystal:
APF fcc = pi/ 3*(2)*½ = 74%

52. Derive Bragg’s Law for X-ray diffraction.

Ans:Bragg's Law states the following:When the X-ray is incident onto a crystal surface, its angle
of incidence, θ, will reflect with the same angle of scattering, θ. And, when the path difference, d
is equal to a whole number, n, of wavelength, λ, constructive interference will occur.
Derivation of Bragg’s LawConsider the following figure of beams in which the phases of the
beams coincide when the incident angle is equal to the reflecting angle. The incident beams are
parallel to each other until they reach point z. When they are at point z, they strike the surface
and travel upwards. At point B, the second beam scatters. AB + BC is the distance traveled by
the second beam. The extra distance is known as the integral multiple of the wavelength.
nλ = AB + BC
We also know that AB = BC
nλ = 2AB (equation 1)
d is the hypotenuse of the right triangle Abz. Ab is the opposite of the angle θ.
AB = d sinθ (equation 2)
Substituting equation 2 in equation 1
nλ = 2d sinθ
The above equation is Bragg’s law expression.
53.
Ans: SC:
1) Number of atoms per unit cell: 8
2) Coordination number : An atom in a simple cubic lattice structure contacts six other atoms, so
it has a coordination number of six.
3) Atomic radius: For a simple cubic lattice,
R = a/2
= 534/2
= 267pm
BCC:
1) Number of atoms per unit cell: Thus, in a BCC cell, we have:
8 corners × 1/8 per corner atom = 8 × 1/8 = 1 atom
1 body center atom = 1 × 1 = 1 atom
Therefore, the total number of atoms present per unit cell = 2 atoms.
2) Coordination number : 8.
3) Atomic radius: ((3)*½ * a)/4
FCC:
1) Number of atoms per unit cell: 4
2) Coordination number : 12
3) Atomic radius: a/2(2*½)

54. State Moseley's law. What is its importance?

Ans:The statement of moseley’s law is: “The square root of the frequency of the x-ray emitted
by an atom is proportional to its atomic number”. New elements were also found because of this
law.
The formula for Moseley’s law is ν=a(Z–b)
Moseley's law states that the square root of the frequency of the emitted x-ray is proportional to
the atomic number.
Importance of Moseley's law:
Moseley’s law is very important because it proved that atomic numbers are more necessary
than atomic mass and it is because of this reason that the entire periodic table was changed
based on the element's atomic number. This law also helped with discovering new elements
and explained the property of elements way better. Using this law Moseley arranged K and Ar,
Ni and CO in a proper way in Mendeleev's periodic table. This law was held to the discovery of
many new elements like Tc (43), Pr (61), Rh (45). The atomic number of rare earths has been
determined by this law.

55. State applications of X-rays.

Ans: Broken bones: Today, x-rays are an integral part of contemporary hospitals and medical
centers. Radiation therapyX-rays play an important role in the fight against cancer, with high
energy radiation used to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Airport security. Almost every
airport on the planet is now fitted with some form of x-ray security system that scans baggage to
check for dangerous items. Revealing counterfeit art. Perhaps one of the lesser known uses, x-
rays are also used by art historians to detect whether or not a picture has been painted over an
existing piece.

56. What are characteristic X-rays?

Ans: X-rays have waveform characteristics similar to other electromagnetic waves.
Characteristic X-rays are emitted when outer-shell electrons fill a vacancy in the inner shell of
an atom, releasing X-rays in a pattern that is "characteristic" to each element.
Characteristic X-rays are produced when an element is bombarded with high-energy particles,
which can be photons, electrons or ions (such as protons). When the incident particle strikes a
bound electron (the target electron) in an atom, the target electron is ejected from the inner shell
of the atom. After the electron has been ejected, the atom is left with a vacant energy level, also
known as a core hole. Outer-shell electrons then fall into the inner shell, emitting quantized
photons with an energy level equivalent to the energy difference between the higher and lower
states. Each element has a unique set of energy levels, and thus the transition from higher to
lower energy levels produces X-rays with frequencies that are characteristic to each element.[2]
Sometimes, however, instead of releasing the energy in the form of an X-ray, the energy can be
transferred to another electron, which is then ejected from the atom. This is called the Auger
effect, which is used in Auger electron spectroscopy to analyze the elemental composition of
surfaces.

57. Distinguish between continuous and characteristic X-ray

Ans: Characteristic X-rays are discharged from the heavy elements when the electrons make
transitions between the lower atomic energy levels. X-ray production typically involves
bombarding a metal target in an evacuated X-ray tube with high-speed electrons which have
been accelerated by tens to hundreds of kilovolts of potential. The bombarding electrons can
eject electrons from the inner shells of the atoms of the target metal, usually tungsten or
molybdenum. This void will be quickly filled up by the electrons falling from higher levels,
emitting X-rays with absolutely defined frequencies associated with the difference between
atomic energy levels of the target atoms as they do. Continuous radiation, or Bremsstrahlung, is
the spectrum of electromagnetic emission when the bombarding electrons are of sufficient
energy, and results from the electrons being rapidly decelerated by the target. The generated X-
ray wavelengths will be distributed over a range, which may or may not include the
characteristic ones, depending upon the energy of the bombarding electrons.

58. Draw a diagram of SC, BCC and FCC lattice crystals and state their coordination number
Ans:

59. Explain optical and magnetic properties of nano materials

Ans: Magnetic properties of nanoparticles
Magnetic properties of nanoparticles are used for drug delivery, therapeutic treatment, contrast
agents for MRI imaging, bioseparation, and in-vitro diagnostics. These nanometer-sized
particles are superparamagnetic, a property resulting from their tiny size—only a few
nanometers—a fraction of the width of a human hair (nanoparticles are approximately 1/1,000
thinner than human hair). Superparamagnetic nanoparticles are not magnetic when located in a
zero magnetic field, but they quickly become magnetized when an external magnetic field is
applied. When returned to a zero magnetic field they quickly revert to a non-magnetized state.
Superparamagnatism is one of the most important properties of nanoparticles used for
biomagnetic separation.
Optical properties of nanomaterial such as absorption, transmission, reflection, and light
emission are dynamic and may differ significantly from properties exhibited by the same bulk
material. A wide range of optical effects may be produced for a variety of applications by simply
manipulating its shape, size, and surface functionality. This manipulation may be achieved via
different means, depending on the composition, size, and orientation
60. Discuss bottom up approach of synthesis of Nano-material.
Ans: Methods to produce nanoparticles from atoms are chemical processes based on
transformations in solution e.g. sol-gel processing, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), plasma or
flame spraying synthesis, laser pyrolysis, atomic or molecular condensation. These chemical
processes rely on the availability of appropriate “metal-organic” molecules as precursors. Sol-
gel processing differs from other chemical processes because of its relatively low processing
temperature. This makes the sol-gel process cost-effective and versatile. In spraying processes,
the flow of reactants (gas, liquid in form of aerosols or mixtures of both) is introduced to high-
energy flame produced for example by plasma spraying equipment or carbon dioxide laser. The
reactants decompose and particles are formed in a flame by homogeneous nucleation and
growth. Rapid cooling results in the formation of nanoscale particles.

61. Write a short note on: (i) Atomic Force Microscopy (ii)Scanning Electron Microscopy
Ans: Atomic force microscopy (AFM) or scanning force microscopy (SFM) is a very-high-
resolution type of scanning probe microscopy (SPM), with demonstrated resolution on the order
of fractions of a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the optical diffraction [Link]
force microscopy[1] (AFM) is a type of scanning probe microscopy (SPM), with demonstrated
resolution on the order of fractions of a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the optical
diffraction limit. The information is gathered by "feeling" or "touching" the surface with a
mechanical probe. Piezoelectric elements that facilitate tiny but accurate and precise
movements on (electronic) command enable precise scanning. Despite the name, the Atomic
Force Microscope does not use the Nuclear force.
A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces images
of a sample by scanning the surface with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact
with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that contain information about the surface
topography and composition of the sample. The electron beam is scanned in a raster scan
pattern, and the position of the beam is combined with the intensity of the detected signal to
produce an image. In the most common SEM mode, secondary electrons emitted by atoms
excited by the electron beam are detected using a secondary electron detector (Everhart–
Thornley detector). The number of secondary electrons that can be detected, and thus the
signal intensity, depends, among other things, on specimen topography. Some SEMs can
achieve resolutions better than 1 nanometer.
Specimens are observed in high vacuum in a conventional SEM, or in low vacuum or wet
conditions in a variable pressure or environmental SEM, and at a wide range of cryogenic or
elevated temperatures with specialized instruments.[

62. What do you mean by the top-down and bottom-up approaches of nanomaterial synthesis
Ans: There are two main approaches to synthesize nanomaterial or nanoparticle. One is top-
down approach and another is the bottom-up approach.
Let us discuss these approaches one by one:
1. Top-down approach:
As the name suggests, the top-down approach means from top(larger) to bottom(smaller). This
approach is similar to making a statue made of stone. As in making of a statue, a bulk or big
piece of stone is taken, similarly in top-down approach; a bulk piece of material is taken. Then
carving and cutting is done until desired shape is achieved. Example: Different kinds of
lithographic techniques cutting (such as electron beam, photo ion beam or X-ray lithograph
cutting), etching, grinding, ball milling and sol gel technique.
2. Bottom-up approach:
As the name suggests, the bottom-up approach means from bottom(smaller) to top or
up(larger). In this technique, a nanometric structure is taken then using methods of assembly or
self assembly, a mechanism is developed which is larger than where it is started.

Example: all cell use enzymes to create DNA by taking constituent molecules and binding them
together to make the final component.

63. Define nanotechnology. Give two examples each of materials naturally occurring at
nanoscale and man-made nanomaterials.
Ans: Nanotechnology refers to the branch of science and engineering devoted to designing,
producing, and using structures, devices, and systems by manipulating atoms and molecules at
nanoscale, i.e. having one or more dimensions of the order of 100 nanometres (100 millionth of
a millimeter) or less.
In the natural world, there are many examples of structures with one or more nanometre
dimensions, and many technologies have incidentally involved such nanostructures for many
years, but only recently has it been possible to do it intentionally.