MEENAKSHI SUNDARARAJAN ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND DATA SCIENCE

SUBJECT CODE: U24CS101

SUBJECT NAME: PROGRAMMING IN C

CLASS: AI&DS AND MECH

YEAR / SEM: I / I
 UNIT-1 I YEAR/I SEM
UNIT I BASICS OF C PROGRAMMING
Introduction to Problem Solving: Algorithm, Flowchart, Pseudocode. Programming Basics:
Applications of C Language-Structure of C program -Identifiers-Data Types – Variables-
Constants – Keywords – Operators – Input/output statements, Decision making statements -
Looping statements - Expressions-Precedence and Associativity – Expressions- Evaluation-
Type Conversions

1.1 ALGORITHMS:

Definition1:
An algorithm can be defined as “a complete, unambiguous, finite number of logical steps for
solving a specific problem”

Definition2:
An algorithm, is defined as a:“well-ordered collection of unambiguous and effectively
computable operations, that when executed, produces a result and halts in a finite amount of
time.”

Definition3:
An algorithm is defined as a finite sequence of explicit instruction that provides a set of
input values, process an output and then terminates.

Definition4:
An algorithm is a well-defined computational procedure consisting of a set of instructions
that takes some value or set of values, as input, and produces some value or set of values, as
output
algorithm
Input Output

Definition5:
An algorithm consists of a set of explicit and unambiguous finite steps which, when carried out
for a given set of initial conditions, produce the corresponding output and terminate in a finite
time. An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem in a finite number of steps.

Definition6:
An algorithm is a finite number of clearly described, unambiguous “doable” steps that can be
systematically followed to produce a desired result for given input in a finite amount of time.

STEPS INVOLVED IN ALGORITHM DEVELOPMENT:

Step1. Identification of input: For an algorithm, there are quantities to be supplied called input
and these are fed externally. The input is to be identified first for any specified problem.
Step2: Identification of output: From an algorithm, at least one quantity is produced, called
output for any specified problem.

2
 UNIT-1 I YEAR/I SEM
Step3 : Identification the processing operations : All the calculations to be performed in order
to lead to output from the input are to be identified in an orderly manner.
Step4 : Processing Definiteness : The instructions composing the algorithm must be clear and
there should not be any ambiguity in them.
Step5 : Processing Finiteness : If we go through the algorithm, then for all cases, the algorithm
should terminate after a finite number of steps.
Step6 : Possessing Effectiveness : The instructions in the algorithm must be sufficiently basic
and in practice they can be carries out easily.

PROPERTIES OF AN ALGORITHM:

1. Finiteness: An algorithm must terminate in a finite number of steps

2. Definiteness: Each step of the algorithm must be precisely and unambiguously stated
3. Effectiveness: Each step must be effective, in the sense that it should be primitive
easily convert able into program statement) can be performed exactly in a finite amount of time.
4. Generality: The algorithm must be complete in itself so that it can be used to solve
problems of a specific type for any input data.
5. Input/output: Each algorithm must take zero, one or more quantities
as input data produce one or more output values.

6. Well-ordered: the steps are in a clear order

7. Unambiguous: the operations described are understood by a computing agent without

further simplification
8. Effectively computable: the computing agent can actually carry out the operation

METHOD FOR DEVELOPING AN ALGORITHM

1. Define the problem: State the problem you are trying to solve in clear and concise terms.
2. List the inputs (information needed to solve the problem) and the outputs (what the
algorithm will produce as a result)
3. Describe the steps needed to convert or manipulate the inputs to produce the outputs.
Start at a high level first, and keep refining the steps until they are effectively computable
operations.
4. Test the algorithm: choose data sets and verify that your algorithm works!

APPROACHES TO ALGORITHM DESIGN:

Top down approach: In this approach, the given problem is divided into two or more sub
problems, each of which resembles the original problem. The solution of each sub problem is
taken out independently. Finally, the solution of all sub problems is combined to obtain the
solution of the main problem. The following figure shows the meaning of top down approach.

3
 UNIT-1 I YEAR/I SEM

Top down approach

Bottom-up approach : This technique is just reverse of the top down programming. In this
programming technique, the solutions of the independent sub-problems are designed first. Then
these solutions are combined or composed in a main module in order to design the final solution
of the problem. The following figure shows the bottomup approach:

Bottom up approach

Example Algorithm 1

Step 1: Start.
Step 2: Read two numbers a and b.
Step 3: Add the numbers a and b and store in sum as
sum=a+b Step 4: Display sum
Step 5: Stop

Example Algorithm 2
Step 1: Start.
Step 2: Read the three numbers A,B,C.
Step 3: Compare A and B. If A is greater, store A in MAX, else store B in MAX.
Step 4: Compare MAX and C. If MAX is greater, output “MAX is greater” else output
“C is greater”.
Step 5: Stop.

4
 UNIT-1 I YEAR/I SEM
1.2 BUILDING BLOCKS OF ALGORITHMS
The building blocks of algorithm refer to the blocks such as statements, state, control
flow structures, functions, etc that are used to develop algorithms

Building blocks of algorithms:

The following are the various building blocks of algorithms:

 Statements
 State
 Control flow
 Functions
Statements

A statement is a command given to the computer that instructs the computer to take a
specific action, such as display to the screen, or collect input. A computer program is made up of
a series of statements.

Example:Statements in Python are made up of:

 Reserved words - words that have pre-defined meanings in the Java language
 Identifiers - words that are created by programmers for names of variables, functions,
classes, etc.
 Literals - literal values written in code, like strings or numbers
 Operators - special symbols that perform certain actions on their operands
 Calls to
functions
State
State is the information that the program manipulates to accomplish some task. It is data
or information that gets changed or manipulated throughout the runtime of a program. The state
of an algorithm is defined as its condition regarding stored data. The stored data in an algorithm
are stored as variables or constants. The state shows its current values or contents. An instruction
is a single operation, that describes a computation. When it executed it convert one state to other.
Example: state refers to the set of variables and the values to which they refer.

Control Flow

Control flow is the order that instructions are executed in a program .A control statement is
a statement that determines the control flow of a set of instructions

Various forms of control flow:

There are three fundamental forms of control that programming languages provide-
sequential control, selection control, and iterative control.

Sequential control: It is an implicit form of control in which instructions are executed in the
order that they are written. A program consisting of only sequential control is referred to as a
5
 UNIT-1 I YEAR/I SEM
“Straight-line program”. Executes statements one by one in linear order

Pseudocode Flowchart
BEGIN
statement
Statement Action1
END
Action2

Selection control: It is provided by a control statement that selectively executes instructions.

The selection structure allows the programs to make a choice between two alternate paths,
whether it is true or false. Selection control structure enables a program to execute different
statements for different conditions. These statements are known as conditional or decision
making or selection statements or branching statements
Algorithm to find biggest among 2 nos
Step1: Start
Step 2: Get two numbers as input and store it in to a and b
Step 3: If a is greater than b then
Step 4: Print a is big
Step 5: else
Step 6: Print b is big
Step 7: Stop

6
 UNIT-1 I YEAR/I SEM

Conditional Statements:
The following are the conditional statements such as if, if-else,if…elif...else statement
if statement:
The if statement is used to test a condition. If the condition is true, the statements of if block
are executed otherwise the statements following the if block are executed.
Pseudocode:
IF(CONDITION)THE
N STATEMENTS
ENDIF

Example:

7
 UNIT-1 I YEAR/I SEM

if else
The if-else statement is used to execute different actions based on the condition. The if-else
statement evaluates the condition and will execute body of if only when test condition is true. If
the condition is false, body of else is executed. It is a two-way branching statement

Pseudocode:
IF condition
THEN statement 1
ELSE
statement 2
END‐IF

Example:

if elif else

The if elif else statement is used to check multiple conditions. When series of actions are to
performed based on one-by-one decisions, then if –else-if else statements are used. It is also
called as multipath decision statement. If the condition for if is false, it checks the condition of
the next elif block. If all the conditions are false, body of else is executed.
8
 UNIT-1 I YEAR/I SEM

Example

Iterative control or repetition structure: It is provided by an iterative control statement that

repeatedly executes instructions. Each is based on a given condition. Loops are used in
programming to repeat a specific block of code.
Algorithm to print first 10 natural numbers
Step1: Start
Step 2: Initailize a=0
Step 3: Check whether a<=10,then goto step
4 Step 4: a=a+1,Print the value of a
Step 5: Else goto step 6
Step 6: stop
9
 UNIT-1 I YEAR/I SEM

Looping/Iterative statements:
The following are the looping statements such as while , for
while:
The while loop in Python is used to iterate over a block of code as long as the test expression
(condition) is [Link] while loop, test expression is checked first. The body of the loop is entered
only if the test_expression evaluates to True. After one iteration, the test expression is checked
again. This process continues until the test_expression evaluates to False.

1
0
 PANIMALAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY UNIT-1 I YEAR/I SEM

Example:

for:

The for loop in Python is used to iterate over a sequence .Iterating over a sequence is called
traversal. Loop continues until we reach the last item in the sequence. The body of for loop is
separated from the rest of the code using indentation.

11
 PANIMALAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY UNIT-1 I YEAR/I SEM

Example:

Various forms of control flow

Loop control statements:

The statements used to control or terminate from the loop are known as loop control statements.
The following are the loop control statements: break, continue

break

The break statement terminates the loop containing it. Control of the program flows to the
statement immediately after the body of the loop. If break statement is inside a nested loop (loop
inside another loop), break will terminate the innermost loop. Inside the loop body, you can use
the break statement to exit the loop immediately.

12
 I YEAR/I SEM

Pseudocode:

WHILE condition
Sequence of
statements BREAK
Continue
The continue statement is used to skip the rest of the code inside a loop for the current iteration
only. Loop does not terminate but continues on with the next iteration. Continue statement
will be encountered, and the flow of control will leave that loop body–but then the loop will
continue with the next element in the range.

13
 I YEAR/I SEM

Pseudocode:

WHILE condition
Sequence of
statements
CONTINUE
Functions
A function is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform a single, related
action. Functions provide better modularity for your application and a high degree of code
reusing. Other Terms: methods, sub-routines, procedure.

Example:
 Function: piece of prewritten code that performs an operation
 print function: displays output on the screen
 Argument: data given to a function
Example: data that is printed to screen
Types of functions/categories of
functions:

Pre-defined functions-built in functions provided by programming languages Example: print()

in python

User-defined functions-created by user. Example fact()

Pseudocode:

BEGIN BEGIN PROCEDURE

CALL PROCEDURE statement1
END statement2
END PROCEDURE

14
 I YEAR/I SEM

1.3 NOTATION

(PSEUDOCODE,FLOWCHART,PROGRAMMING

LANGUAGE)

Notation refers to the means of representing the algorithm for solving a task. The following are
the notations for representing the algorithms

 Pseudocode
 Flowchart
 Programming Languages
PSEUDOCODE

Pseudo code derived from „pseudo‟ which means imitation and „code‟ means instruction is a
generic way of describing an algorithm without using any specific programming language
related notations. Pseudocode is an artificial and informal language that helps programmers to
develop algorithms. Pseudocode can be defined as the narrative description of the flow and logic
15
 I YEAR/I SEM
of the intended program, written in plain language that expresses each step of the [Link]
pseudocode is also called as Program design language (PDL)

Characteristics/properties of Pseudocode:

 It is a “text based” detail (algorithmic) design tool.

 Pseudo code generally consists of short English phrases to express a specific task
 Consists of natural language-like statements that precisely describe the steps of an
algorithm or program
 Statements describe actions
 Focuses on the logic of the algorithm or program
 Avoids language-specific elements

Guidelines for developing Pseudocode:

The general guidelines for developing pseudocodes are :

• Statements should be written in English and should be programming language independent.

• Steps of the pseudocodes must be understandable.
• It should be concise.
• Each instruction should be written in a separate list and each statement in pseudocode should
express just one action for the computer.
• The keywords like READ, PRINT etc should be written in capital letter.

Pseudocode Language
Constructs
The Commonly used keywords

Start: START, BEGIN

STOP: END
Input: READ, OBTAIN, GET, USERINPUT
Output: PRINT, DISPLAY, SHOW, RETURN, OUTPUT
Process/compute: COMPUTE, CALCULATE,
DETERMINE Initialise: SET, INIT
Add one: INCREMENT, BUMP

If statement:
IF condition THEN
statement 1
ELSE
statement 2
END‐IF

While:
WHILE condition
statements
END‐WHILE

16
 I YEAR/I SEM
For: FOR
condition
statements
END‐FOR

for subprogram
BEGIN
SUBPROGRAM,
END SUBPROGRAM,
BEGIN
PROCEDURE,
END PROCEDURE
Indenting is used to show structure in the algorithm.
Advantages of Pseudocode:
 Its language independent nature helps the programmer to express the design in
plain natural language.
 Based on the logic of a problem it can be designed without concerning the syntax or
any rule

 It can be easily translated into any programming language.

 It is compact in nature and can be easily modify.
 To develop a pseudocode it requires less time and effort than other programming tools.

Disadvantages/ Limitations of Pseudocode:

 It is unable to provide the visual presentation of the program logic.
 It has not any standard format or syntax of writing.
 It cannot be compiled or executed.
 To convert a pseudocode into flowchart is not easy
Example1: Calculate Area and Circumference of a Circle

READ radius of the circle as r

CALCULATE area== 3.14*r* r
CALCULATE circumference = 2* 3.14
*r PRINT area
PRINT circumference
Example2: Swap Two Values without Temporary Variable

READ two values say A,

B COMPUTE A=A+B
COMPUTE B= A-B
COMPUTE A= A-B
PRINT Swapped values of A, B

FLOWCHARTS

A flowchart is a pictorial representation of an algorithm that uses boxes of different shapes to

denote different types of instructions. A flowchart acts as a road map for a programmer and
17
 I YEAR/I SEM
guides the programmer as to how to go from the starting point to the final point while writing a
computer program. A flow chart will also help the programmer at the time of analyzing,
debugging and testing the programs. A graphical tool that diagrammatically depicts the steps and
structure of an algorithm or program.

Definition: A flowchart is a graphical representation of a program flow or an algorithm of a

problem to be solved by a computer.

Characteristics/properties of flowchart:

Flowcharts are also known as process maps to identify flow of information

 Used to identify number of steps in a process

 Used to identify branches in a process
 Used to identify inter-dependent operations

Flowchart advantages

 Flowcharts are a graphical way of writing an algorithm.

 They are standardised: they all agree on the symbols and their meaning.
 Since a flowchart is a diagramatic representation of a program flow of a problem, it
helps a programmer to get a good visual reference of the structure of a program.

 Flowchart not only serves as a program documentation but also helps as a means
to communicate with several programmers as it is language independent.
 It serves as a useful reference or a programing aid due to its simple and efficient
method of representing the program logic of a problem.

Flowchart disadvantages
 They are hard to modify and can be time consuming.
 They need special software for symbols
 Constructing a flowchart is time-consuming
Reasons for using flowchart as a problem-solving tool:

 Communication
 Effective analysis
 Proper documentation
General rules /Guidelines for drawing flowcharts

 The flowchart should be clear, neat and easy to follow.

 The flowchart should contain one Start and one Stop terminator
 Only one flow line should come out from a process symbol.

 Only one flow line should enter a decision symbol. However, two or three flow
lines may leave the decision symbol.

18
 I YEAR/I SEM

 Only one flow line is used with a terminal symbol.

 Flowcharts are drawn so that flow generally goes from top to bottom of the page or
from left to right
 Within standard symbols, write briefly and precisely.
 Intersection of flow lines should be avoided.
 It is useful to test the validity of the flowchart with normal/unusual test data.

 The symbols of the flowcharts are always labeled

19
 I YEAR/I SEM

Commonly used flowchart symbols:

Predefined process-To show process or procedure that is previously specified.

Preparation-To show for loop and set-up process

Example1: Flowchart for calculating simple interest

20
 I YEAR/I SEM

Example2: Flowchart to find the largest of the two given numbers.

Finding the Largest of two Numbers

Difference between Algorithm, Pseudocode and Flowchart:

[Link] Algorithm Pseudocode Flowchart

1 An algorithm is a A tool to document and A tool to document and
sequence of instructions represent the algorithm represent the algorithm
used to solve a particularReadable, formally Graphical representation
problem styled English like of the algorithm
representation of the
algorithm
2 Provides the logic of the Uses programming Uses graphical symbols
program in steps language constructs
3 Does use symbols and Use keywords Use standardized
programming language symbols
constructs
4 Set of instructions Artificial and Informal A graphical way of
language writing pseudocode

Programming Language:

The programming language is the medium through which the problems to be solved by computer
can be represented in the form of programs or set of instructions. The computer executes the set of
instructions written in a particular language to produce the desired result. A programming language
consists of a set of characters, symbols, and usage rules that allow the user to communicate with
computers. In a simple form it can be defined as - any notation for the description of algorithm and
data structure may be termed as a programming language.

21
 I YEAR/I SEM

Low Level Language:

 A low-level language is a programming language that deals with a computer's hardware

components and constraints. It has no (or only a minute level of) abstraction in
reference to a computer and works to manage a computer's operational semantics.
 A low-level language may also be referred to as a computer‟s native language.
 Machine language and assembly language are popular examples of low-level
languages.

High Level Language:

 A high-level language (HLL) is a programming language such as C, FORTRAN, or
Pascal that enables a programmer to write programs that are more or less
independent of a particular type of computer.
 Such languages are considered high-level because they are closer to human
languages and further from machine languages
There are different levels of programming language as follows :
• Machine language
• Assembly language
• High level language

i) Machine language : The machine language programs were written using the digit 0 and 1.
The instruction in machine language consists of two parts. The first part is an operation which
tells the computer what operation is to be performed. The second part of the instruction is
operand, which tells the computer where to find or store the data after applying the operation
ii)Advantages :
Translation free : Machine language is directly understand by the computer so it does not need
any translation. Otherwise, if a program is developed in high level language then it has to be
translated into the machine language so that the computer can understand the instructions.
High speed : The application developed in the machine language are extremely fast because it
does not require any conversion.

Disadvantages :
Machine dependent : Program developed in one computer system may not run on an another
computer system.
Complex language : This language was very difficult to understand and programming techniques
were tedious.

Error prone : Writing machine language programs, a programmer has to remember all the
opcodes and memory locations, so machine language is bound to be error prone.
iii)Assembly language : Assembly language is not a single language, but a group of language. An
assembly language provides a mnemonic instruction, usually three letters long, corresponding to
each machine instruction. The letters are usually abbreviated indicating what the instruction
does, like ADD for addition, MUL for multiplication etc. The assembly language allows the
programmer to interact directly with the hardware. Each line of assembly language program
consists of four columns called fields.
The general format of an assembly language instruction is :
[Label] <Opcode> <Operands> [; Comment]

e.g. BEGIN ADD A, B ; Add B to A

Advantages:
Easy to understand and use : Assembly language uses mnemonics instead of using numerical
22
 I YEAR/I SEM

opcodes and memory locations used in machine language, so it is easy to understand and use.
Less error prone : Assembly language is less error prone and it provides better facility to locate
errors and correct them.
Faster : It is much faster and use less memory resources than the high level language.
Disadvantage :
• Assembly language programs are machine dependent.
• Assembly language is complex to learn.
• A program written in assembly language is less efficient than machine language because every
assembly instruction has to be converted into machine language.
iv) High level language : COBOL, FORTRAN, PASCAL and C are the examples of high level
languages. High level languages are similar to English language. Programs written using these
languages may be machine independent. A single instruction of a high level language can
substitute many instructions of machine language and assembly language. Using the high level
language complex software can be design.
Advantages :
• Readability : Since high level languages are similar to English language so they are easy to
learn and understand.
• Programs written in high level languages are easy to modify and maintain.
• High level language programs are machine independent.
• Programs written in high level language are easy to error checking.
Disadvantages :
Programs written in high level language has to be compile first for execution of the program.
This step of compilation increases the execution time of an application. Moreover, the programs
occupies more memory space during the execution time.
Another main drawback of HLL programs is - its poor control on the hardwares.
Language Translators

The language translators or also called language processors are the programs which converts the
high level language programs into the machine language programs for execution.
Types of Language Translators:

 Compiler
 Interpreter
 Assembler

Compiler : A compiler is a program that can translates an higher level language program to its
machine form. This language processor translates the complete source program as a whole into
machine code before execution. Here the source program means – the program that is written by
the programmer and the translated program is called a object program or object code. Examples: C
and C++ compilers. If there are errors in the source code, the compiler identifies the errors at the
end of compilation. Such errors must be removed to enable the compiler to compile the source
code successfully.

23
 I YEAR/I SEM

Interpreter: It is a language processor whose working principle is different from compilers. It

translates each statement of source program into machine code and executes it immediately before
translating the next statement. If there is an error in the statement the interpreter terminates its
translating process at that statement and displays the error message. The python is an example of
interpreter.

Assembler : We have already known that - assembly language is the symbolic representation of a
computer‟s binary encoding – machine language . Assembly language is more readable than
machine language because it uses symbols instead of bits. A program called an assembler that
translates assembly language into binary instructions or machine language. An assembler reads a
single assembly language source file and produces an object file containing machine instructions.

Difference between compiler and interpreter

[Link] Compiler Interpreter

24
 I YEAR/I SEM

1 Translates High level language Translates each instruction one by

into target language in binary form one from HLL into low level
machine language
2 Reads the whole program first and Reads each instruction one by one
then translates it into the machine and translate each instruction
language immediately one by one

3 It is a faster process It is a slow process because the

interpreter has to wait while each
instruction is being translated
4 Examples: C,C++ Examples :Python

1.4 ALGORITHMIC PROBLEM SOLVING:

Problem:

The problem can be defined as the gap between actual and desired conditions.

Steps involved in problem solving:

1. Identify the Problem:

You identify the problem before you start solving it .If you don‟t know what the problem is, you
cannot solve it.
2. Understand the Problem:
You must understand what is involved in the problem before you continue towards the solution.
You cannot solve the problem if you do not know the subject. For example solve a problem
involving accounting you must know accounting. Thus before start of solution you understand
knowledge base of the person or machine for whom you are solving the problem.
3. Identify alternative ways to solve the problem:
Find out different alternatives for solving problem. Alternatives solutions must be acceptable ones.
4. Select the best way to solve the problem from the list of alternative solutions:
In this step you identify and evaluate the pros and cons of each possible solution before selecting
the best one for doing this, you should have selection criteria for the evaluation which will serve
guidelines for evaluating each solution.
5. List instructions that enable you to solve the problem using the selected solution:
List step by step instruction from knowledge base for solving the problem using the selected
solution. No instruction can be used unless the individual or the machine can understand it.
6. Evaluate the solution:
Evaluation of solution means to check its result to see if it is correct, and to see if it satisfies the
needs of the person with the problem. If the result is unsatisfactory, restart the process. If any of
these six steps are not completed well, the results may be less than desired.

Algorithmic Problem solving:

Algorithmic problem solving means solving the problem by means of algorithm.

Algorithmic problem solving steps:

25
 I YEAR/I SEM

 Understanding the problem

 Ascertain the capabilities of the computational device
 Exact /approximate solution
 Decide on the appropriate data structure
 Algorithm design techniques
 Methods of specifying an algorithm
 Proving an algorithms correctness
 Analysing an algorithm
Understanding the problem:
The problem given should be understood completely. Check if it is similar to some standard
problems & if a Known algorithm exists. Otherwise a new algorithm has to be developed
Ascertain the capabilities of the computational device:
Once a problem is understood, we need to know the capabilities of the computing device this can
be done by knowing the type of the architecture, speed & memory availability.

Exact /approximate solution:

Once algorithm is developed, it is necessary to show that it computes answer for all the possible
legal inputs. The solution is stated in two forms, exact solution or approximate solution. Examples
of problems where an exact solution cannot be obtained are i) Finding a square root of number. ii)
Solutions of nonlinear equations.
Decide on the appropriate data structure:
Some algorithms do not demand any ingenuity in representing their inputs. Some others are in fact
are predicted on ingenious data structures. A data type is a well-defined collection of data with a
well-defined set of operations on it. A data structure is an actual implementation of a particular
abstract data type.

Algorithm design techniques:

Creating an algorithm is an art which may never be fully automated. By mastering these design
strategies, it will become easier for you to develop new and useful algorithms. Dynamic
programming is one such technique.

Methods of specifying an algorithm:

There are mainly two options for specifying an algorithm: use of natural language or pseudocode
& Flowcharts. A Pseudo code is a mixture of natural language & programming language like
constructs. A flowchart is a method of expressing an algorithm by a collection of connected
geometric shapes

Proving algorithms correctness:

Once algorithm is developed, it is necessary to show that it computes answer for all the possible
legal inputs .We refer to this process as algorithm validation. The process of validation is to assure
us that this algorithm will work correctly independent of issues concerning programming language
it will be written in.
Analysing algorithms:
As an algorithm is executed, it uses the computers central processing unit to perform operation and
its memory (both immediate and auxiliary) to hold the program and data. Analysis of algorithms
and performance analysis refers to the task of determining how much computing time and storage
26
 I YEAR/I SEM

an algorithm requires

INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING PARADIGMS:

Programming paradigms are a way to classify programming languages based on their features. Languages can
be classified into multiple paradigms.
Major programming paradigms are:
1. Imperative
2. Logical
3. Functional
4. Object-Oriented
Imperative programming paradigms:
- In imperative programming paradigm , Computations are performed through a guided
sequence of steps, in which the variables are referred to or changed.
- The order of the steps is crucial, because a given step will have different consequences
depending on the current values of variables when the step is executed.
- Popular programming languages are imperative more often than they are any other
paradigm studies in this course. There are two reasons for such popularity:
 The imperative paradigm most closely resembles the actual machine itself, so the
programmer is much closer to the machine;
 Because of such closeness, the imperative paradigm was the only one efficient
enough for widespread use until recently.
Advantages
o Efficient
o close to the machine
o Popular
o Familiar.
Disadvantages
o The semantics of a program can be complex to understand or prove.
o Side effects also make debugging harder;
o Abstraction is more limited than with some paradigms;
o Order is crucial, which doesn't always suit itself to problems.
Logical programming paradigms:
- The Logical Paradigm takes a declarative approach to problem-solving.
- Various logical assertions about a situation are made, establishing all known facts.
- Then queries are made. The role of the computer becomes maintaining data and logical
deduction.
- A logical program is divided into three sections:
 a series of definitions/declarations that define the problem domain
 statements of relevant facts
27
 I YEAR/I SEM

 statement of goals in the form of a query

Advantages:
The advantages of logic oriented programming are
o The system solves the problem, so the programming steps themselves are kept to a
minimum;
o Proving the validity of a given program is simple.
3. Functional programming paradigms:
- The Functional Programming paradigm views all subprograms as functions in the
mathematical sense-informally, they take in arguments and return a single solution.
- The solution returned is based entirely on the input, and the time at which a function is called
has no relevance.
- The computational model is therefore one of function application and reduction.
Advantages:
o Higher level of abstraction
o The lack of dependence on assignment operations
o Possess referential transparency.
Disadvantages
o Perhaps less efficiency
o Problems involving many variables or a lot of sequential activity are sometimes easier to
handle imperatively or with object-oriented programming.
4. Object-Oriented
- Object Oriented Programming (OOP) is a paradigm in which real-world objects are each
viewed as separate entities having their own state which is modified only by built inprocedures,
called methods.
- Because objects operate independently, they are encapsulated into modules which contain both
local environments and methods. Communication with an object is done by message passing.
- Objects are organized into classes, from which they inherit methods and equivalent variables.
The object-oriented paradigm provides key benefits of reusable code and code extensibility.
Benefits and Features:
o A new class (called a derived class or subclass) may be derived from another class (called a
base class or superclass) by a mechanism called inheritance. The derived class inherits all
the features of the base class: its structure and behavior(response to messages.
o Inheritance gives OOP its chief benefit over other programming paradigms - relatively easy
code reuse and extension without the need to change existing source [Link], encapsulation
and information hiding are inherent benefits of OOP.
INTRODUCTION TO C PROGRAMMING:
- C is a general-purpose computer programming language developed in 1972 by Dennis
M. Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories to develop the UNIX Operating System.
- C is also called mother Language of all programming Language. It is the most widely use
computer programming language.
- All other programming languages were derived directly or indirectly from C
programming concepts.
- This language is used for develop system software and Operating System.
Features of C:

28
 I YEAR/I SEM

Simplicity:
- It is very easy to understand.
Portability:
- It is the concept of carrying the instruction from one system to another system
Powerful:
- C is a very powerful programming language, it have a wide verity of data types,
functions, control statements, decision making statements, etc
Structure oriented:
- Structure oriented programming language aimed on clarity of program, reduce the complexity
of code, using this approach code is divided into sub-program/subroutines. These programming
have rich control structure.
Modularity
- In c programming we can break our code in subprogram.
Middle level language:
- C programming language can supports two level programming instructions with the
combination of low level and high level language that's why it is called middle level
programming language
Compiler based:
- C is a compiler based programming language that means without compilation no C program
can be executed
Syntax based language
- C is a strongly tight syntax based programming language.
Efficient use of pointers
- Pointers is a variable which hold the address of another variable, pointer directly direct access
to memory address of any variable due to this performance of application is improve
Uses(Applications) of C language:
 To Design Operating system
 To Design Language Compiler and Interpreter
 To Design Database
 Language Interpreters
 Utilities
29
 I YEAR/I SEM

 Network Drivers
 Assemblers
 UNIX Kernel is completely developed in C Language.

STRUCTURE OF A ‘C’ PROGRAM

Simple C Program:
/* Simple C program to display the text */
#include<stdio.h>:
int main()
{
printf(“good morning\n”);
return(0);
}
/*……..*/
A comment starts with star and asterisk /* and ends with asterisk and start */ . comment lines
used to give description and it is ignored by compiler during execution. #include<stdio.h>
This <stdio.h> is called header file that has functions used for reading input and generating
output.
In order to use printf function, we need to include the required file in our program using
#include preprocessor.
int main()
C program consists of functions with required main() function as a entry point of program. It
is where, actual execution starts.
A program can have only one main function and any number of sub functions.
Curly brackets { …. }
Indicates block of code.
we can have statements inside the brackets to determine what the function does when executed.

30
 I YEAR/I SEM

printf(“good morning\n”);
printf is a build-in functions which is used to display output in the screen.
\n is called escape sequence to go to next line It always begin with \ (back slash).
Semicolon(;)
It is used to terminate the statement.
return(0);
- This statement terminates the main function.
- Returns the value 0 to the operating system indicating Successful completion of
program.
- Any other number indicates that the program is failed.

STRUCTURE OF C PROGRAM:

Fig, Structure of C program

Documentation Section
o This section consists of set of comment lines which gives the name of programmer and other
details like time and date of writing the program.
o Comment lines used to give description and it is ignored by compiler during
execution.
o Documentation section helps anyone to get an overview of the program.
o There are two types of comments.
Single line comment (// program for addition)
Multiple line comment(/*...............*/)
Link Section
- The link section consists of the header files of the functions that are used in the
program.
- It provides instructions to the compiler to link functions from the system library.
- Some of the header files are,
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
31
 I YEAR/I SEM

#include<math.h>

32
 I YEAR/I SEM

Here, #include is the preprocessor directive.

Definition Section
All the symbolic constants are written in definition section. Macros are
known as symbolic constants.
Ex: #define PI 3.14
Global Declaration Section
The variables that are used in more than one function throughout the program are called global
variables. Global variables declared outside of all the functions.
main() Function Section
Every C program must have one main() function, which specifies the starting point of ‘C’
program.
Main function contains two parts,
i. Declaration part
ii. Executable part
 The declaration part contains all the variables that are used in executable part.
 These two parts must be written in between the opening and closing braces.
 Each statement in the declaration and executable part must end with a semicolon (;).
 The execution of program starts at opening braces“{”and ends at closing braces“}”.
Subfunction(Sub program) Section
Subprogram section contains all the user defined functions that are placed after the main function.

‘C’ CHARACTER SET

Character set is a set of alphabets, letters and some special characters that are valid in C language.
The basic character set of C language includes, 2
types :
(i)Source Character Set :
Uppercase letters: A, B,C….Z.
Lowercase letters: a, b, c……z.
Digits: 0 to 9.
Special characters: , . : ; “ # % & ( ) { } [ ] | \/ _ ^~ +,-,~&,!,/,\,*@,etc.
White spaces characters int age; // balnk space between int and age is ignored by
compiler. It is used to distinguish the aqw.
(ii)Execution Character set:
Horizontal tab \t
Vertical Tab \v
New line character \n
Null Character \0

33
 I YEAR/I SEM

C TOKENS:
 C tokens are the basic buildings blocks in C language which are constructed together to
write a C program.

IDENTIFIERS:

Identifiers are the name used to identify entities like variable, function, array, structure or any other
user-defined item.
Identifier must be unique.
They are created to give unique name to an entity to identify it during the execution of the program.
Rules for naming an Identifier
 Identifier name in C can have letters, digits or underscore(_).
 The first character of an identifier name must be a alphabet (a-z, A-Z),underscore( _ ).
 The first character of an identifier cannot be a digit.
 Keywords are not allowed to be used as Identifiers.
 No special character (except underscore) blank space and comma can be used in
Identifier name.
KEYWORDS
 Keywords are reserved words that have a particular meaning in C language.
 The meaning of key word is predefined. These meaning of the keyword cannot be
changed.
 There are total 32 keywords in C language.

VARIABLES:

 It is a name given to the memory location.

 In programming, a variable is a container (storage area) to hold data.
 To indicate the storage area, each variable should be given a unique name called
identifier.

34
 I YEAR/I SEM

Rules to define variable name

 Variable name in C can have letters ( A – Z ), ( a – z ), numbers and underscore (_), Digits
(0–9)
 No Special Symbols like blank space and Commas are allowed in variable name.
 First Character should be alphabet or underscore and not a number.
 Variable name should not be keyword.
 The maximum number of character(31 characters) is allowed in a variable and it
depends on a compiler.
2 steps:
(i) variable declaration
- Declaration of variables must be done before they are used in the program.
- Declaration does two things.
It tells the compiler , the name of the variable.
It specifies what type of data the variable will hold.
Syntax:
datatype variable;
Example:
int number;
char a; float
price;
char name[20];
(ii) variable initialization
- Initialization is done using assignment operator(=). Also, we can assign the value to the
variable during declaration itself.
If no input values are assigned(initialized) by the user , then the system will give a
default value to the allocated memory which is called garbage value.
Example,
int a=20;

L-Value: R-Value
L- Value Is An Object Locator. R-value refers to ‘Read Value’.
L-Value Stands For Left Value
The L-Value Could Legally Stand On The Left Side Of R-value can be anything of following:
An Assignment Operator. [Link]
For Example: Mark=20; // [Link]
The L- Value Should Be A Variable. 3. Constant
Eg,
num=20; //constant R value

35
 I YEAR/I SEM

num=20+20; //constant R value

Expression

L value cannot be a constant and cannot be a datatype.

Eg, 5=num; //Error
int=num;
Example:
Addition of two numbers: Output:
#include< stdio.h> Sum is 100
int main()
{
int a,b,c; //Variable declaration
a=50; //Assigning values to variables
b=50;
c=a+b;
printf("sum is %d",c);
return(0);
}
Variable definition=variable declaration + memory reservation

Scope of variable(Types of variable):

Variable Scope is a region in a program where a variable is declared and used.
i. Local Variable - Variables that are declared inside a function or a block are called
local variables and are said to have local scope.
We can use (or access) a local variable only in the block or function in which it is declared. It
is invalid outside it.
ii. Global Variable:- Variables that are defined outside of all the functions and are
accessible throughout the program are global variables.
It is declared above the main function.
Example:(program using local and gloab Output:
variable) Value of a : 10
#include<stdio.h> Value of b : 20
int a=10; // global variable
int main()
{
int b=20; // local variable
printf("Value of a : %d\n",a);
printf("Value of b : %d\n",b);return(0);}

36
 I YEAR/I SEM

DATA TYPES :
 Data types determines the possible values that an identifier can have and the valid
operations that can be applied on it.
 The type of a data determines how much space it occupies in storage.
 In C Language, data types are broadly classified as

Basic/Primitive data types:

1. Character – char
2. Integer - int
3. Floating point – float
4. Double– double
5. No value available – void

1. Basic(Primitive) data types

Integer type:
 Integers are whole numbers that can have both positive and negative values but no
decimal values.
 Keyword for integer is int.
 Size of en integer is 2 bytes or 4 bytes.
 Size of the datatype change with respect to the processor used.
Type Size(bytes) Range
int or signed int 2 -32,768 to32767
unsigned int 2 0 to 65535
short int or signed short int 1 -128 to 127
long int or signed long int 4 -2,147,483,648to2,147,483,647
unsigned longint 4 0 to4,294,967,295
Floating type
 Float data type is used to store real numbers.

37
 I YEAR/I SEM

 Key word is float. The size of floating point number is 4 bytes.

 If the accuracy is not sufficient in floating point, the double data type can be used to define
the number.
 Eg, float height=5.5
Range values are given for 16 bit processor.
Type Size(bytes) Range
Float 4 3.4E-38 to3.4E+38
Double 8 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308
longdouble 10 3.4E-4932to1.1E+4932
Character type
- Character denotes any alphabet, digit or special symbol to represent information.
- Key word is char.
- Size of character is 1 byte. Eg, char a=‘h’;
Type Size(bytes) Range
char or signed char 1 -128 to127
unsigned char 1 0 to255
void type
- void means no value.
- This is usually used to specify the type of functions.
Data type modifiers:
It is nothing but modifying the memory space allocated to the variable.
Types:
1. Signed(signed)
2. Unsigned(unsigned)
3. Short(short)
4. Long(long)
Integers and floating point variables can hold both negative and positive values.
Sign modifiers Size modifiers
Signed Unsigned short long
signed keyword unsigned keyword In general int data type It is used to increase
accepts both negative accepts only occupies different the size of the current
or positive value. positive values. memory spaces for a data type to 2 more
.(It is the default different operating bytes.
integer data type). system;
To allocate fixed
memory space short
keyword can be used.

Example: Example: For example: For Example:

signed int number; unsigned int rate; short int a; long int a;
or
int number;

38
 I YEAR/I SEM

2. User-defined Data Types

The C language provides flexibility to the user to create new data types. These newly created data
types are called user-defined data types. The use-defined data types in c can be created by using:
1. typedef
2. Enumeration
typedef:
- typedef keyword is used to give new name to the existing data type..
Syntax:

typedef datattype
variable
In the below program, rollno is the variable name (alias)given to the existing datatype int. So, after this
type definition, roll no can be used instead of datatype int.
Example (using typedef): Output:
#include<stdio.h> Roll number1 is 4001
int main() Roll number2 is 4002
{
typedef int rollno;
rollno num1 = 4001,num2 = 4002;
printf("Roll number1 is %d\n",num1);
printf("Roll number2 is %d\n",num2); return(0); }

Enumerated data type:

- enum is a keyword used.
- It is mainly used to assign the names to integral constants ,as the names make a program easy
to read and maintain.
- The compiler assigns integer values starting from 0 and further increments by 1 for all enum
values(contants values ).
- We can also assign value to the enum constants if we need.
Syntax:
enum variable {value1, value2,.........Value n};
Default Numeric value assigned to first enum value is “0”.
Example: Example(using enum Example 2:
datatype): #include<stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h> main()
main() {
{ enum
enum month{JAN, FEB, month{JAN,FEB=5,MARCH,A
MARCH, APRIL, MAY}; PRIL=2, MAY,JUNE=3, JULY};
enum month m1; enum month m1;
m1=APRIL;

39
 I YEAR/I SEM

printf("%d",m1);} m1=MAY;printf("%d",m1);}
Output: Output:
3 3
Explanation: Explanation:
In this example, we declared Integers are assigned to enum
“m1” as the variable and the constants.
value of “APRIL” is
allocated to
m1, which is 3.

3. Derived data types

These data types are derived from the basic data types. Derived data types available in c are:
Array
Structure
Union
Pointer
Type conversion (Type casting):
- A type cast is basically a conversion from one type to another.
There are two types of type conversion:
Implicit Type Conversion (Also known as ‘automatic type conversion’):
- This Implicit conversion is done by the compiler on its own, without any
knowledge to the user.
- Generally type casting takes place when in an expression is having more than one data
type in it.
- Here, It is best practice to convert lower data type to higher data type to avoid data loss.
Because, Data will be truncated when the higher data type is converted to lower. For
example, if a float is converted to int, data which is present after the decimal point
will be lost.
- Hence, Compiler convers all operands into datatype of the largest operand.
bool-> char-> short int -> int -> unsigned int -> long -> unsigned -> long long ->float ->
double -> long double
Example 1:(implicit typecasting) Example 2: :(implicit typecasting)
#include<stdio.h> #include <stdio.h>
main() main() {
{ int i = 17;
int a=10; char c = 'c';
float b=6.1; float sum;
float c; sum = i + c; /* ascii value is 99 */
c=a+b; /*integer value 10 is converted to float value as printf("%f\n", sum );
10.0 automatically*/ }
printf("%f",c); Output:
} 116.000000

40
 I YEAR/I SEM

Output:
16.100000
Explicit Conversion(Type casting):
The type conversion performed by the programmer by specifying the data type in the expression.
Data type should be mentioned before the variable name or value.
Syntax:
(data type)expression
Example1: Example2: :(Explicit typecasting)
#include <stdio.h> #include <stdio.h>
main() main()
{ {
int x=13, y=5 ; int x=13, y=5 ;
float z; float z;
z=x/y; // here, quotient is int datatype and it is z=(float)x/y; // int data type is converted to
stored in float variable float and float value(quotiemt) is stored in
printf("%f",z); float variable
} printf("%f",z);
Output: }
2.000000 Output:
2.600000

STORAGE CLASS:
A storage class defines the scope (visibility) and life-time of variables. Scope
- Where to store a variable (Storage area of variable) Lifetime- How long
the variable can be stored in the memory( alive) The following storage
classes are most often used in C programming.
[Link] [Link]
[Link] [Link]
A variable should be declared in any one of these four storage class.
1. auto storage class:
- auto is the default storage class.
- It is stored in RAM(main memory)
Scope: It can be used only in the block of code where it is declared.(local variable)
Lifetime: It will be alive only inside the block of code where it is declared.
Default value is Garbage Value

Syntax: Example:
auto data_type variablename; (or) auto int a;

41
 I YEAR/I SEM

data_type variable; int a;

(both are same since auto is default
storage class )
To print the value using auto storage Output:
class: Value of a is: 11
#include<stdio.h> Value of a is: 11
int main() Value of a is: 11
{
increment();
increment();
increment();
}
int increment()
{
auto int a=10;
a++;
printf("Value of a is: %d\n", a);
}

2. Static Storage class:

Scope: It can be used only in the block of code where it is declared.(local variable)
Lifetime: It can be used throughout the program. That means, the variable will be alive until
the program completes its execution.
Default value is 0.
Syntax: Example:
static data_type variablename; static int a;
To print the value using static storage class: Output:
#include<stdio.h> int Value of a is: 11
main() Value of a is: 12
{ Value of a is: 13
increment();
increment();
increment();
}
int increment()
{
static int a=10;
a++;
printf("Value of a is: %d\n", a);
}

3. Extern Storage Class:

- This process is similar to storing global variable.
- When extern keyword is used, the compiler will come to know that somewhere in the
program , variable is declared or initialized(may be outside or inside the function,etc).

42
 I YEAR/I SEM

Scope: Variable can be accessed from anywhere in the program.

Lifetime: It can be used throughout the program. That means, the variable will be alive
until the program completes its execution.
Default Value is 0.
Note: Memory occupied by the variable will be released only after completion of the program.
Syntax: Example:
extern datatype variablename; extern a=10;
Printing the value of the variable using extern storage class.
#include<stdio.h> int Output:
main() 3
{ 10
int a=3; extern
int b;
printf("%d\n",a);
printf("%d\n",b);
}
b=10;

4. Register Storage Class:

- Register variables are also local variables, but stored in register memory.
Whereas, auto variables are stored in main CPU memory.
- These data objects will have a local life time.
- Theyhave to be initialized implicitly otherwise they will have a garbage value.
Advantages: The register variables are faster than remaining variables, because register variable
are stored in register memory in the processor and not in main memory..
Limitation: But, only limited variables can be used as register since register size is very low. (16 bits,
32 bits or 64 bits).
Scope: It can be used only in the block of code where it is declared.(local variable)
Lifetime: It will be alive only inside the block of code where it is declared.
Default value is Garbage Value
Only difference between auto and register the storage place(RAM/Register)

Syntax: Example:
register data_type variablename; register int a;
Printing the value of the variable using register storage class Output:
#include<stdio.h> int Value of a is 11
main() Value of a is 11
{ Value of a is 11
increment();
increment();
increment();

43
 I YEAR/I SEM

}
int increment()
{
register int a=10; a++;
printf("Value of a is: %d\n", a);
}

Properties of Storage Class:

CONSTANTS (LITERALS):

Constants are the values that cannot be changed during the execution of a program.
Constant is a fixed value which may be an integer, floating point number, character or a string.
Types of constants:

 Integer constants:
- Integer constants are integer values like -1, 2, 8 without any decimal point.
- It can be either positive or negative. If no sign proceeds an integer is assumed to be
positive.
There are three types of integer constants in C language:
- Decimal constant (base 10)
- Octal constant (base 8)
44
 I YEAR/I SEM

- Hexadecimal constant (base 16)

 Floating-point constants:
- Floating point constants can be written in fractional form or exponential form. Floating point
constant are values like -23.1, 12.8, -1.8e12.
- The floating point constant in an exponential form has two parts: The mantissa part and the
exponent part. Both parts are separated by e or E.

 Character constants:
- Character constants can have one character enclosed within single quotes.
- For example: 'a', 'l', 'Y', 'A' etc.
Escape Sequences
- C supports some special character constants that are used in output functions.
- Escape sequence consists of a backward slash (\) followed by a character.

Escape Sequences Character

\n Newline
\a Alert
\t Horizontal tab
\v Vertical tab
\\ Backslash
\' Single quotation mark
\" Double quotation mark
\? Question mark
\0 Null character
 String constants
- String constant can have group of characters enclosed within double quotes.
For example: “hai”, “welcome”
Declaring a variable as constant:
Syntax:
const datatype variable = constant
Example:
const float PI=3.14;
Program using const Output To find area of rectangle Output
keyword: error using const keyword. #include area : 70
#include<stdio.h> int [const value cannot <stdio.h>
main() be changed.

45
 I YEAR/I SEM

{ int main()
{

46
 I YEAR/I SEM

const int a=10; const int LENGTH = 10;

printf("%d",a); const int WIDTH = 5; int
a=20; area;
return(0); area = LENGTH * WIDTH;
} printf("area : %d", area);
return(0);
}

OPERATORS IN C:

Operands:
 An operand specifies an entity on which an operation is to be performed.
 An operand can be a variable name, constant, a function call.
Operators:
 Operators are special symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or logical
operations.
 Operator specifies the operation to be applied to its operands.
CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATORS:
The operators in c are classified on the basis of the following criteria:
1. The number of operands on which an operator operates.
2. The role of an operator.
Classification based on Number of Operands
Based upon the number of operands on which an operator operates,operators are classified as,
Unary operator: Binary operator ternary operator
A unary operator operates Binary operator operates Ternary operator operates on three
on only one operand. on two operands. operands. (Conditional operator)
Eg, Eg: Eg,
-3. Here the – is an unary 2-3. Here (-) acts as a ?: is a ternary operator
minus operator. binary operator.
Classification based on role of operator
Based upon their role operators are classified as:
1. Arithmetic operators
2. Assignment operators
3. Relational operators
4. Logical operators
5. Bitwise operators
6. Increment /Decrement operators
7. Conditional operator
8. Special operators
Arithmetic operators
Arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, divisions, etc. The arithmetic operators
available in c are given here.

47
 I YEAR/I SEM

Operato Description Eg Program Output:

r
+ adds two operands a+b #include<stdio.h> 13
- subtract second operands from a-b int main() -3
first { 40
* multiply twooperand a*b int a=5,b=8; 0
/ divide numerator by denominator, a/b printf("%d\n",a+b); 40
gives quotient as result printf("%d\n",a-b);
% dividenumerator bydenominator, a%b printf("%d\n",a*b);
gives remainder asresult printf("%d\n",a/b);
printf("%d\n",a*b);
}
Assignment Operators
A variable can be assigned a value by using an assignment operator. The assignment operators are
available in c are given below.
Operator Description Example
= assigns values from right side operands to left side operand a=b
+= adds right operand to the left operand and assign the result to a+=b is same as
left a=a+b
-= subtracts right operand from the left operand and assign the a-=bissameas a=a-b
result to left operand
*= multiply left operand with the right operand and assign the a*=b is same as
result to left operand a=a*b
/= divides left operand with the right operand and assign the a/=bissameas a=a/b
result to left operand
%= calculate modulus using two operands and assign the a%=b is same as
result to left operand a=a%b
Example: Output:
#include <stdio.h> c=5
int main() c=10
{ c=5
int a = 5, c; c=25
c = a;
c=5
printf("c=%d \n", c);
c += a; printf("c=%d c=0
\n", c); c -= a;
printf("c=%d \n", c); c
*= a;
printf("c=%d \n", c);
c /= a;
printf("c=%d \n", c);

48
 I YEAR/I SEM

c %= a;
printf("c=%d \n", c); return 0;
}

Relational operators:
- Relational operators are used to check the conditions.
- If the relation is true, it returns 1; if the relation is false, it returns value 0.
- The operand may be variables, constants or expressions.
Operator Description Example program Output
:
== Check if two operand are equal #include<stdio.h> 0
!= Check if two operand are not equal. int main() 0
> Check if operand on the left is { 1
greater than operand on the right int a=5,b=8; 0
< Check operand on the left is smaller printf("%d\n",a==b); 1
than right operand printf("%d\n",a>b); 1
>= check left operand is greater than or printf("%d\n",a<b);
equal to right operand printf("%d\n",a>=b);
<= Check if operand on left is smaller printf("%d\n",a<=b);
than or equal to right operand printf("%d\n",a!=b);
}
Logical operators:
- Logical operators are used to combine the results of two or more conditions. C has the
following logical operators.
Op Description Example a=5, b=2
erator
&& Logial AND. True only if all operands are true ((a == 5) && (b > 5)) equals to 0.
|| Logical OR. True only if either one operand is true ((a == 5) || (b > 5)) equals to 1.

! Logical NOT. True only if the operand is 0 ! (a == 5) equals to 0.

Note: 1 represents true and 0 represents false.

Example: Output:
#include <stdio.h> 0
int main() 1
{ 1
int a=5,b=7,c=2;
printf("%d\n",((a==b)&&(a==c)));
printf("%d\n",((a==b)||(a>c)));
printf("%d\n",(!(a==b)));
}
Bitwise operators:
- Bitwise operators perform manipulations of data at bit level.
- It operates on individual bits of the operands.
- Bitwise operators are not applicable for float or double data types.

49
 I YEAR/I SEM

- The Truth table for &, | and ^ operation.

A B A &B A| B A^B
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0
Assume A = 60 and B = 13 .
In binary format, A= 0011 1100 and B = 0000 1101
Operator Description A= 0011 1100 and B = 0000 1101
& Bitwise AND (A & B) = 12, i.e., 0000 1100
| Bitwise OR (A | B) = 61, i.e., 0011 1101
^ Bitwise exclusive OR (A ^ B) = 49, i.e., 0011 0001
~ Bitwise Complement (~A ) = -60, i.e,. 1100 0100 in 2's
complement form.
<< left shift A << 2 = 240 i.e., 1111 0000
>> right shift A >> 2 = 15 i.e., 0000 1111

Increment operator/decrement operator: Increment

operator:
- Increment operator is used to increment the value by adding 1.
- The value of i++ is equal to i=i+1.
Syntax:

Increment operator can be classified into two types.

pre increment operator
post increment operator
Pre increment operator: Post increment operator:
First the value of operand is The value of operand is used for the
incremented by 1 and then it is used evaluation of the expression and then it
for evaluation of the expression. is incremented.
For example: ++i For example: i++.
Decrement operator:
- Decrement operator is used to decrement the value by subtracting 1.
- The value of i-- is equal to i=i-1.
Decrement operator can be classified into two types.
pre decrement operator
post decrement operator

50
 I YEAR/I SEM

Pre decrement operator: .Post decrement operator:

First the value of operand is The value of operand is used for the
decremented by 1 and then it is used evaluation of the expression and then it
for evaluation of the expression. is decremented.
For example: --i For example: i--.

Example: #include Preincrement: Postincrement:

<stdio.h> int main() #include<stdio.h> int #include<stdio.h>
{ main() main()
int i=10; printf("%d\n",i+ { {
+); int x,i; int x,i;
printf("%d\n",++i); i=10; i=10;
printf("%d\n",i--); x=++i; printf("x:%d\ x=i++;
printf("%d\n",--i); n",x); printf("x: %d\n",x);
} printf("i:%d\n",i); printf("i: %d\n",i);
Output: return(0); return(0);
10 } }
12 Output: Output:
12 x:11 i:11 x: 10
10 i: 11

Special Operator:
Operator Description Example
Sizeof Returns the size of an variable sizeof(x);
& Returns the address of an variable &x;
* Pointer to a variable *x ;

Example: Output:
#include <stdio.h> Size of integer is 2
int main() Size of Float value is 4
{ Size of character is 1
int a;float b;char c;
printf("Size of integer is %d\n", sizeof(a));
printf("Size of Float value is %d\n", sizeof(b));
printf("Size of character is %d\n", sizeof(c));
}
Conditional operator:
Conditional operator is the ternary operator.
Syntax:
Condition? Expression 1: Expression 2
Condition: condition is checked first. This expression evaluates to 1 if it's true and evaluates to 0 if
it's false.

51
 I YEAR/I SEM

Expression1: If the condition is true, this expression is evaluated and return the result of Expression1.
Expression2: If the condition is false, this expression is evaluated.
Advantages of ternary operator:
Using ?: reduce the number of line codes and improve the performance of application.
Example 1: Use of ternary Example 2: Use of ternary operator
operator
#include <stdio.h> #include<stdio.h>
int main() main()
{ {
int a=89,b; int a=10,b=20,small;
b=(a ==100?1:2); printf((a<b ? printf("a is less") : printf("a is greater")));
printf("%d\n",b);return(0); return(0);
} }
Output: Output:
2 a is less

PRECEDENCE OF OPERATORS:(Associativity)

 Each operator in c has a precedence associated with it..

 High precedence operator *, /,%.
 Low precedence operator +, -.
Precedence rule: This rule decides the order in which different operators are applied.
Associativity rule: This rule decides the order in which multiple occurrence of the same
level operators are applied.
 Several operators of the same precedence appear together, the operator are evaluated
according their associativity.
 If the operators are left-to-right associative, they are applied in left-to –right order.
 If the operators are right-to-left associative, they are applied in right-to-left order.
 This table lists C operators in order of precedence (highest to lowest) and their
associativity.

Operator Description Associativity

() Parentheses (function call) left-to-right
[] Brackets (array subscript)
Increment right-to-left
++
decrement
-- Unary plus
+ unary minus
- Address of operator Determine
& size in bytes on this
sizeof implementation

52
 I YEAR/I SEM

* Multiplication left-to-right
/ Division Modulus
%
+ Addition left-to-right
- Subtraction
< Relational less than operator left-to-right
<= less than or equal to operator
> Relational greater than greater
>= than or equal to

== Relational is equal to left-to-right

!= is not equal to
& Bitwise AND left-to-right
^ Bitwise exclusive OR left-to-right
| Bitwise inclusive OR left-to-right
&& Logical AND left-to-right
|| Logical OR left-to-right
?: Ternary conditional right-to-left
= Simple Assignment right-to-left
+= assign addition Assign
-= subtraction Assign
*= multiplication Assign
/= division Assign
%= modulus

, Comma operator left-to-right

Examples:
a=9-12/3+3*2-1 int a; a=2*3+4%5-3/2+6 int a= 5+7*4-9*(3,2)
a=? a=2*3.25+((3+6)/2) a=? a=?
a=9-4+3*2-1 a=? a=6+4-3/2+6 a= 5+7*4-9*2
a=9-4+6-1 a=2*3.25+9/2 a=6+4+1+6 a=5+28-18
a=5+6-1 a=6.50+4 a=10-1+6 a=33-18
a=11-1 a=10.50 a=9+6 a=15
a=10 a=10 a=15
(because ‘a’ is an integer)

53
 I YEAR/I SEM

b=4*6+3*4<3?4:3 a=2,b=12,c=1 find m=?

b=? d=a<b>c m=-43||8&&0||-2
b=24+3*4<3?4:3 d=2<12>1 d=1>1 m=-43||0||-2
b=24+12<3?4:3 d=0 m=1||-2
b=36<3?4:3 m=1
b=3

EXPRESSIONS:

Expressions:
An expression is a sequence of operands and operators.
The meaningful expression consists of one or more operands or operators that specify the
operations to be performed on operands.
Example: a+b, a-b.
Operands:
An operand specifies an entity on which an operation is to be performed.
Operators:
Operators are special symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or logical operations.
Operator specifies the operation to be applied to its operands.
Based on the number of operators present in an expression, expressions are classified as simple
expression and compound expressions.
Simple expressions:
An expression that has only one operator is known as a simple expression
For example: a+2; Compound
Expressions:
An expression that has more than one operator is known as compound expressions.
For example: b= 2+3*5;
INPUT AND OUTPUT STATEMENTS:
In c language two types of input/output statements are available. They are
1. Formatted input/output statements
2. Unformatted input/output statements

54
 I YEAR/I SEM

FORMATTED INPUT AND OUTPUT STATEMENTS:

Formatted input and output refers to input and output, that has been arranged in a particular format.
It read and writes all types of data values.

scanf() statement:

 scanf() is a built-in library function in c.

 It is a standard input function used to read inputs from the user during execution of the
program.
Syntax:
scanf(“control strings”,&variable1,&variable2….&variable);
Control strings(Format Specifier):
- Control string is the type of data that the input statement going to accept, this
always preceded with a % sign.
- Each variable name must be preceded by an ampersand (&).
- & is the address of operator which gives the address of variable.
- It is built in function defined in the <stdio.h> header file.
- The given table lists some control strings with its meaning.
Format specifier Meaning
%c Single character
%s String
%d Integer
%f Float
%ld Double
scanf() for integer data type(%d)
Example:
scanf(“%d”,&a);
- here, a is a variable holding integer value.
- %d is the integer format specifier to represent integer data.
- ‘&’ symbol is used to represent the memory address of the variable.
scanf() for float data type(%f)
Example:
scanf(“%f”,&b);
- here, b is a variable holding float or fractional value.
- The format specifier %f indicates floating or fractional data.
scanf for character data type(%c)
Example: scanf(“%c”,&ch);

55
 I YEAR/I SEM

- here ch is the character datatype.

- %c is the character format specifier to represent character.
scanf for string(%s)
Example:
scanf(“%s”,name);
- here name is the string datatype.
- %s is the string format specifier to represent string data.
Rules for writing scanf function:
o scanf() statement should end with a semi colon (;). This indicates the compiler that it is the end
of the statement..
o The format specifiers should always be placed in between double quotes (“ ”).
o Separate the variables using comma (,)
o Always use a right format specifier while using scanf() function in C.
o Always use the exact data type of the variable for reading the data.
o As C is a case sensitive language, capital letters are not used while writing scanf()
function.
printf() statement:
 It is used to display the output to the screen.
 printf is used to print the message or value.
 It is builtin function defined in the stdio.h header file.
2 ways of using printf statement:
(i) printf() can print text on the screen without using any format specifier.
Syntax:
printf(“string”);
Example:
printf(“hello my dear friend”);
(ii) printf() is used to print the value of the variable and results of the [Link]
format specifier
Syntax:
printf(“control string”, variable1,variable2..);
Example:
printf(“my age is %d”, age)
Control strings(Format Specifier):
- Control string is the type of data that the input statement going to accept, this always
preceded with a % sign.
printf() for integer datatype:
Example:
printf(“%d%d”,a,b); // here a and b variables holding integers.
printf() for float datatype:
Example:
printf(“%f%f”,a,b); //here a and b are variables holding float values.

56
 I YEAR/I SEM

printf for character datatype:

Example:
printf(“%c”,ch); //here ch is the character datatype.
printf for string:
Example:
printf(“%s”,name); //here name is the string datatype.
Rules for writing printf statement:
1. The message which is to be printed should be placed in between double quotes (“ ”).
2. The printf() function should follow a semi colon at the end.
3. Separate the format specifiers and variables using comma (,).
Use of printf() and scanf() functions in C: Output:
#include<stdio.h> Enter any character:
int main() s
{ Entered character is s
char ch; Enter any string:
char str[100]; anitha
int num; Entered string is anitha
printf("Enter any character:\n"); Enter the number
scanf("%c", &ch); 301
printf("Entered character is %c \n", ch); entered number is 301
printf("Enter any string: \n");
scanf("%s", str);
printf("Entered string is %s \n", str);
printf("Enter the number\n");
scanf("%d",&num);
printf("entered number is %d:",num);
return(0);
}
Program to add two numbers:
#include<stdio.h
int main() Output:
{ Enter two numbers:
int a,b,c; 2
printf("Enter two numbers:\n"); 2
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b); Sum of entered
c = a + b; numbers is 4
printf("Sum of entered numbers is %d\n",c);
return(0);
}
Program to print student details:
#include<stdio.h> Output:
int main() enter the roll no,mark1,
{ mark2,mark3,name
int rollno,m1,m2,m3; 1001 95 85 95 george
char name[20]; Roll no is 1001
float total,percentage; Name is george

57
 I YEAR/I SEM

printf("enter the roll no,mark1,mark2,mark3,name\n"); scanf("%d%d Marks Obtained is 958595

%d%d%s",&rollno,&m1,&m2,&m3,name total marks is 275.000000
); percentage is 91.666664
total=(m1+m2+m3); percentage=total/3;
printf("Roll no is %d\n",rollno);
printf("Name is %s\n",name);
printf("Marks Obtained is %d%d%d\n",m1,m2,m3);
printf("%total marks is %f\n",total); printf("percentage is
%f\n",percentage);
return(0);
}

Swapping of 2 values using temporary variable: Output:

#include <stdio.h> Enter the value of a and b 4
int main() 5
{ Before Swapping value of a
int a,b,temp; and b is: 4 5
printf("Enter the value of a and b\n"); After Swapping value of a
scanf("%d%d", &a, &b); and b is: 5 4
printf("Before Swapping value of a and b is: %d
%d\n",a,b);
temp=a; a=b;
b=temp;
printf("After Swapping value of a and b is: %d
%d\n",a,b);
return(0);
}

Swapping of 2 numbers without using temporary variable: Output:

#include <stdio.h> Enter the value of a and b 4
int main() 5
{ Before Swapping value of a
int a,b,temp; and b is: 4 5
printf("Enter the value of a and b\n"); After Swapping value of a
scanf("%d%d", &a, &b); and b is: 5 4
printf("Before Swapping value of a and b is: %d
%d\n",a,b);
a=a+b;
b=a-b;
a=a-b;
printf("After Swapping value of a and b is: %d
%d\n",a,b);
return(0);
}

Program to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit: Output:

#include<stdio.h> Enter the Temperature in
int main () Celcius:10

58
 I YEAR/I SEM

{ The Temperature in
float celsius, fahrenheit; Fahrenheit is:50.000000
printf ("Enter the Temperature in Celsius:"); scanf
("%f", &celsius);
fahrenheit = (1.8 * celsius) + 32;
printf ("The Temperature in Fahrenheit is:%f", fahrenheit); return(0);
}

Program to find slope and midpoint of a line: Output:

#include<stdio.h> Enter the first point x1,y1:
int main () 10
{ 20
float xmp,ymp,x1,y1,x2,y2,slope; Enter the second point
printf ("Enter the first point x1,y1:\n"); x2,y2:
scanf ("%f %f", &x1,&y1); 30
printf ("Enter the second point x2,y2:\n"); 40
scanf ("%f %f", &x2,&y2); Slope is:1.000000
slope=(y2-y1)/(x2-x1); midpoint is:20.000000
xmp=(x1+x2)/2; 30.000000
ymp=(y1+y2)/2;
printf ("Slope is:%f\n", slope);
printf("midpoint is:%f %f",xmp,ymp);
return(0);
}

UNFORMATTED INPUT AND OUTPUT STATEMENTS:

Unformatted I/O functions work only with character data type (char). This is also called
character oriented I/O functions.
There are 2 different types:
o Character I/O
o String I/O
o File I/O
Various functions are,

59
 I YEAR/I SEM

input.
Syntax: Syntax:
variable name=getchar(); putchar(variable_name);
Example Example:
char c; char c;
c=getchar(); putchar(c );
Program using getchar and putchar function:
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
char a;
printf("enter any key");
a=getchar(); // read input and store it in variable ‘a’
putchar(a); //display the output on screen
}
Output: enter
any key s
s

getch() putch()
- getch() accepts only single character from It displays any alphanumeric characters to the
keyboard. standard output device. It displays only one
- getch() function will just wait for any character at a time.
keyboard input (and press ENTER). It won’t Syntax:
display the given input character in output screen. putch(variable_name)
Syntax: Example:
variable_name=getch(); char a;
Example: putch(a);
char x;
x=getch();

Program using getch() function:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("Hello World! "); getch();
return 0;
}
Output:
Hello World!

60
 I YEAR/I SEM

getche()
Like getch(), getche() also accepts only single character, but getche() displays the entered input
character in the screen.
Syntax:
Variable_name=getche();
Example:
char x; x=getche();
To use getch(), getche() functions, you need to include #include <conio.h> header file
which is a non-standard header file.

gets() puts()
- gets() accepts any line of string including spaces puts displays a single / paragraph of text to the
from the standard Input device (keyboard). standard output device.
-gets() stops reading character from keyboard Syntax: puts(variable_name);
only when the enter key is pressed. Example:
Syntax: gets(variable_name); char name[25];
Example: puts(name);
char name[25];
gets(name);
Program to read and print the string using gets
and puts:
#include<stdio.h> main()
{
char name[20]; printf("enter
the string\n"); gets(name); Output:
puts(name); enter the string
return(0); hello my friend
} hello my friend

Character Build-in functions:

isalnum(ch)
isalpha(ch)
isdigit(ch)
islower(ch)
isupper(ch)
tolower(ch)
toupper(ch)

61
 I YEAR/I SEM

Program to convert character from lower case to uppercase and vice versa:
#include<stdio.h> Output 1:
int main() enter the character
{ g
char a; G
printf("enter the character\n"); Output 2:
a=getchar(); enter the character
if(islower(a)) G
putchar(toupper(a)); g
}
else
{
putchar(tolower(a));
} return(0);
}
Difference Between Formatted And Unformatted Input/Output Functions:
Formatted Unformatted
1. These are standard input output library These are console input output library function.
function.
2. Formatted input and output functions can Unformatted input/output can deal with one
deals with all kind of data types. character at a time and string function for array of
characters (string).
3. Unformatted Input / Output functions Formatted Input / Output functions are several
have fixed format to give the input and standard library functions
obtain the output.

DECISION MAKING( BRANCHING STATEMENTS) IN C:

- Decision making and branching statements are used to decide the order of execution of
statements based on certain conditions.
- Decision making and branching statements are used to transfer the program control from
one point to another.
- They are categorized as
 Conditional statements
 Unconditional statements
Conditional statements:
Conditional statements also known as Selection statements. In this, the program control is transferred
from one point to another based upon the outcome of certain condition. The following conditional
statements are available in C:
1. if statement
2. if-else statement
3. nested if statement
4. else-if ladder
5. switch statements
62
 I YEAR/I SEM

1. if statement
 If the condition is true, the statements inside if statement will be executed.
 If the condition is false, the control will be transferred to the statements outside of if.

Program to check the given number is positive Output

#include<stdio.h> int Enter the number 6
main() number is positive
{
int num;
printf("Enter the number\n");scanf("%d",&num); if(num>0)
{
printf("number is positive");
}
}

Program to find the purchase value. If >1000, price 200 will

deducted from purchase. Output
#include<stdio.h> int enter the purchase value50000
main() deducted amount is 49800
{
int purchase;
printf("enter the purchase value");
scanf("%d",&purchase); if(purchase>1000)
{
purchase=purchase-200;
}
printf("deducted amount is %d", purchase);
}

2. if...else statement
 In this, else statement can be combined with if statement.
 If Condition is checked first.
 If the condition is true, statements inside the if part is executed
 When the condition is false, statements in else part is executed.

63
 I YEAR/I SEM

Program to check vote eligibility Output:

#include<stdio.h> enter your age
int main() 5
{ not eligible to vote
int age;;
printf("enter your age\n"); scanf("%d",&age);
if(age>18)
printf("eligible to vote");
else
printf("not eligible to vote");return(0);
}
Program to find odd or even number Output
#include<conio.h> enter the number
int main( ) 6
{ 6 is even
int n; enter the number
printf("enter the number\n");scanf("%d",&n); 5
if(n%2==0) 5 is odd
printf("%d is even",n);
else
printf("%d is odd",n);return(0);
}
Greatest of 2 numbers: Output
#include<stdio.h> enter the 2 numbers
int main( ) 4
{ 100
int a,b; 100 is greater
printf("enter the 2 numbers\n");scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
if(a>b)
printf("%d is greater",a);
else
printf("%d is greater",b);return(0);
}

64
 I YEAR/I SEM

Leap year or not:

#include <stdio.h> Output:
int main()
{ Enter a year 2016
int year; leap year
printf("Enter a year\n");
scanf("%d", &year);
if ((year%4 == 0) && (year%100!=0)|| (year%400==0))
printf("leap year.\n");
else
printf("not a leap year.\n");
return(0);
}
Note:
A year is leap year if following conditions are satisfied
1) Year is multiple of 400
2) Year is multiple of 4 and not multiple of 100.

3. Nested if-else statement

 Nested if-else is used to check more than one conditions.
 If there are more than two alternatives to select, then the nested-if statements are used.
 The conditions are executed from top to bottom.
 Enclosing an if statement within another if statement is called nested-if statement.

If 'expression' is false the 'statement-3' will be executed, otherwise it continues to check the condition
for 'expression 1' .
If the 'expression 1' is true the 'statement-1' is executed otherwise 'statement-2' is executed

65
 I YEAR/I SEM

Program to find greatest of three number. Output

#include<stdio.h> int
main( )
{ enter 3 numbers
int a,b,c; 6
printf("enter 3 numbers\n"); scanf("%d 8
%d%d",&a,&b,&c); if(a>b) 1
{ 8 is greatest
if( a > c)
printf("%d is greatest",a);
else
printf("c is greatest");
}
else
{
if( b> c)
printf("b is greatest"); else
printf("c is greatest");
}return(0);
}

4. else-if ladder :
 If there are more than three alternatives, we can go for else if ladder.
 Once a true condition(if) is satisfied, the other statements in the ladder will be skipped.
 When all conditions became false, then the final else part which contains default statement will be
executed.

66
 I YEAR/I SEM

Program to print class obtained based on percentage of marks Output:

#include <stdio.h> Enter the percentage of marks
int main() obtained by student:
{ 53
int marks; Grade E
printf("Enter the percentage of marks obtained by student:\n");
scanf("%d",&marks);
if(marks>=90)
printf("Grade S");
else if(marks>=80)
printf("Grade A");
else if(marks>=70)
printf("Grade B");
else if(marks>=60)
printf("Grade C");
else if(marks>=55)
printf("Grade D");
else if(marks>=50)
printf("Grade E");
else
printf("Grade U");return(0);
}
Program to find Quadratic Equation: Output:
#include <stdio.h> enter the value of a,b & c
#include<math.h> -1
int main() 2
{ 4
int a,b,c,d; Both roots are real and diff
float x1,x2; First Root x1= -1.236068
printf("enter the value of a,b & c\n"); Second Root x2= 3.236068
scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c);
d=b*b-4*a*c;
if(d==0)
{
printf("Both roots are equal\n");
x1=-b/(2.0*a);
x2=x1;
printf("First Root x1= %f\n",x1);
printf("Second Root x2= %f\n",x2);
}
else if(d>0)
{
printf("Both roots are real and diff-2\n");
x1=(-b+sqrt(d))/(2*a);
x2=(-b-sqrt(d))/(2*a);
printf("First Root x1= %f\n",x1);
printf("Second Root x2= %f\n",x2);

67
 I YEAR/I SEM

}
else
printf("Root are imaginary\n");
}
Program to find the entered key is an alphabet or numeric Output:
or alphanumeric(using character Build-in functions) Enter any key
#include<stdio.h> 8
int main() Entered key is number
{
char a;
printf("Enter any key\n");
a=getchar();
if(isdigit(a))
printf(" Entered key is number");
else if(isalpha(a))
printf("Entered key is alphabet");
else
printf("Entered key is alphanumeric");
return(0);
}
Program to find the entered key is an alphabet or numeric or Output:
alphanumeric(using print, scanf statements) enter a single character or
#include<stdio.h> value
int main() [
{ Alphanumeric
char ch;
printf("enter a single character or value \n"); scanf("%c",&ch);
if((ch>='a')&&(ch<='z'))
printf("Alphabet\n");
else if((ch>='0')&&(ch<='9'))
printf("Number\n");
else
printf(("Alphanumeric\n")); return(0);
}
Note:
In if statement, a single statement can be written without using curly braces { }
Eg, int x=2;
if(x > 4)
printf("welcome");
In the above case, no curly braces are required, but if we have more than one statement
inside if condition, then we must use curly braces.
Other than 0(zero), all other values are considered as true.
Eg, if(9)
printf("welcome");
In above example, hello will be printed, because the integer 9 is a non zero value.

68
 I YEAR/I SEM

Switch statement:
 C provides a multi way decision statement called switch statement.
 It allows the user to make a decision from number of choices.
 The expression(condition) in switch case return an integer value or character constant, which is
compared with the values in different cases.
 When the condition matches with the case ,that block of statement is executed.
 If there is no match, then default statement is executed.

Note:
It isn't necessary to use break after each block, but if you do not use it, all the consecutive block of codes will
get executed after the matching block.
int i = 1;
switch(i)
{
case 1:
printf("A"); // No break case 2:
printf("B"); //No break case 3:
printf("C");
break;
}
Output : A B C
- The output was supposed to be only A because only the first case matches, but as there is no break
statementaftertheblock,thenextblocksareexecuted,untilthe cursor encounters a break.
Rules for switch Statement:
o Default case is optional andcan be placed anywhere in the switch case. But Usualy we place itattheend.

69
 I YEAR/I SEM

o Case keyword must terminate with colon(:)

o Case order execution is from top to bottom.
o No two case constant should be same.
Example: To print month using switch case Output:
#include<stdio.h> int Enter any number
main() from 1 to 4 to
{ represent month
int ch; 3
printf("Enter any number from 1 to 4 to represent month\n"); scanf("%d",&ch); March
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
printf("january");
break;
case 2:
printf("february");
break;
case 3:
printf("march");
break;
case 4:
printf("april"); break;
}
return(0);
}

Arithmetic operations using switch: Output: [Link]

#include<stdio.h> int [Link]
main() [Link]
{ [Link]
int a,b,op; printf("[Link]\[Link]\[Link]\[Link]\n"); Enter the values of a &
printf("Enter the values of a & b: "); b: 20 5
scanf("%d %d",&a,&b); Enter your Choice : 3
printf("Enter your Choice : ");scanf("%d",&op); Multiplication is :
switch(op) 100
{
case 1 :
printf("Sum is : %d",a+b); break;
case 2 :
printf("Difference is : %d",a-b);
break;
case 3 :
printf("Multiplication is : %d",a*b);

70
 I YEAR/I SEM

break;
case 4 :
printf("Division is %d : ",a/b); break;
default :
printf(" Enter Your Correct Choice."); break;
}
return(0);

Printing student GPA details using switch case:

#include<stdio.h> Output:
int main() Enter three subject
{ Marks95
int m1,m2,m3,gpa; 94
float tot, avg; 96
printf("Enter three subject Marks"); grade=A
scanf("%d%d%d",&m1,&m2,&m3);
tot=m1+m2+m3;avg=tot/3; gpa=avg/10;
switch(gpa)
{
case 10: printf("grade=S"); break;
case 9 : printf("grade=A"); break;
case 8 : printf("grade=B"); break;
case 7 : printf("grade=C"); break;
case 6 : printf("grade=D"); break;
case 5 : printf("grade=E"); break;
default : printf("grade=F");
}
return(0);
}
LOOPING STATEMENTS / ITERATIVE STATEMENTS:
 In Loop, sequence of statements are executed until a specified condition is true.
 This sequence of statements to be executed is kept inside the curly braces { } known as the Loop
body.
 After every execution of loop body, condition is verified, and if it is found to be true the loop body is
executed again. When the condition check returns false, the loop body is not executed.
 There are 3 type of Loops in C language
for loop
while loop
do-while loop
Entry controlled loop Exit controlled loop
The test condition is checked first before the The loop is executed first and then condition is
loop is executed. checked.

71
 I YEAR/I SEM

Example The loop is executed at least once, even when

while loop the condition is false.
for loop Example
do-while loop

while Loop:
 It is an entry controlled looping statement.
 Statements are executed repeatedly until the while condition is true.
 It is completed in 3 steps.
 Variable initialization. ( e.g int x=0; )
 Condition Checking ( e.g while( x<=10) )
 Variable increment or decrement ( x++ or x-- or x=x+2)
Description:
Step 1: The while condition is checked first.
Step 2: If the condition is true, the statements inside the loop will be executed, then the variable value is
incremented or decremented at the end of the looping statement.
Step 3: If the condition is false, the loop body will be skipped and the statements after the while loop will
be executed.

Sum of n natural numbers using while loop Output:

#include<stdio.h> Enter a number
int main() 5
{ The sum of nos: 15
int n,i=1,sum = 0;
printf("Enter a number\n"); scanf("%d",&n);
while(i<=n)
{
sum=sum+i;
i++;
}
printf("The sum of nos: %d\n",sum);return(0);
}

Sum of Digits of given number using while loop: Output:

72
 I YEAR/I SEM

#include <stdio.h> enter the number

int main() 555
{ sum of digits of given no is: 15
int n,dig,sum1=0;
printf("enter the number\n");scanf("%d",&n);
while(n>0)
{
dig=n%10;
sum1=sum1+dig;
n=n/10;
}
printf("sum of digits of given no is: %d",sum1);
return(0);
}
To reverse the given number Output:
#include <stdio.h> Enter a no to reverse
int main() 523
{ Reverse of entered no=325
int n,dig,rev=0;
printf("Enter a no to reverse\n"); scanf("%d",&n);
while(n>0)
{
dig=n%10;
rev=(rev*10)+dig;
n=n/10;
}
printf("Reverse of entered no=%d",rev); return(0);
}
To check the given number is palindrome or not: Output:
#include <stdio.h> Enter a number to check
int main() palindrome:
{ 1221
int n,rev=0,temp,dig; It is a palindrome no.
printf("Enter a number to check palindrome:\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
temp=n;
while(temp != 0 )
{
dig=temp %10;rev=rev*10 + dig; temp=temp/10;

73
 I YEAR/I SEM

}
if(rev == n )
printf("It is a palindrome no.\n"); else printf("it is
not a palindrome no.\n"); return(0);
}
To Check Armstrong number or not: Output:
#include <stdio.h> Enter a number
int main() 153
{ Its an Armstrong number
int n, arm = 0, dig, temp;
printf("Enter a number\n");
scanf("%d", &n);
temp=n;
while (temp != 0)
{
dig = temp %10;arm= arm + (dig*dig*dig);
temp = temp/10;
}
if(arm==n)
printf("Its an Armstrong number"); else
printf("Its an not Armstrong number"); return(0);
}

do whileloop:

 It is an exit controlled looping statement.

 The do-while loop checks its condition at the bottom of the loop whereas for and while loops, the
loop condition is checked at the top of the loop.
 do-while loop is guaranteed to execute the statement at least one time.

74
I YEAR/I SEM

75
 I YEAR/I SEM

While Do while
Conditionistestedfirstandthen statements are Statements are executed at least
executed. once. then the conditions are tested.
While loop is entry controlled loop Do wile loop is exit control
loop.

Sum of 10 natural no’s using do while loop: Output:

#include<stdio.h> Enter a number
int main() 10
{ The sum of digits: 55
int n,i=0,sum = 0;
printf("Enter a number\n"); scanf("%d",&n);
do
{
sum=sum+i;
i++;
}while(i<=n);
printf("The sum of digits: %d\n",sum);return(0);
}
Program to print multiples of 5: Output:
#include<stdio.h> 5
int main() 10
{ 15
int a=5,i=1; 20
do 25
{ 30
printf("%d\n",a*i); 35
i++; 40
} 45
while(i <= 10); 50
}
Program to print the squares of number from 1 to 10: Output:
#include<stdio.h> numbers squares
#include<math.h> 1 1
int main() 2 4
{ 3 9
int num=1,sq; 4 16
printf("numbers squares\n"); 5 25
do 6 36
{ 7 49
sq=pow(num,2); 8 64
printf("%d%20d\n",num,sq); 9 81
num++; 10 100
}while(num<=10);
return(0);
}

76
 I YEAR/I SEM

for loop:
for loop is usedtoexecutea set of statements repeatedlyuntilaparticularconditionis satisfied.

Flow of Execution:
i. The initialization step is executed first, and only once. This step allows to declare and initialize
any loop control variables.
ii. Next, the condition is evaluated. If it is true, the body of the loop is executed. If it is false, the
body of the loop will not be executed and flow of control jumps to the next statement just after
the for loop.
iii. After the body of the for loop executes, the flow of control jumps back up to the
increment statement. This statement allows to update any loop control variables.
iv. The condition is now evaluated again. If it is true, the loop executes and the process repeats itself
(body of loop, then increment step, and then again condition). When the condition becomes
false, the for loop terminates.
Different ways of implementing for loop:
Form Comment

for(i=0;i<10;i++) Statement1;
Single Statement

for ( i=0 ;i <10; i++) Multiple Statements within for

{
Statement1;
Statement2;
Statement3;
}

for ( i=0 ; i < 10;i++) ; For Loop with no Body ( Carefully Look at
the Semicolon )

for(i=0,j=0;i<100;i++,j++) Multiple initialization & Multiple

Statement1; Update Statements Separated by Comma
77
 I YEAR/I SEM

for ( ; i<10 ; i++) Initialization not used

for ( ; i<10 ; ) Initialization & Update not used

for ( ; ; ) Infinite Loop, Never Terminates

Simple Programs using for loop:
Printing n natural numbers: Output:
#include <stdio.h> enter the maximum no to be
int main() printed:10
{ 1
int n,i; 2
printf("enter the maximum no to be printed:"); 3
scanf("%d",&n); 4
for(i=1;i<=n;i++) 5
{ 6
printf("%d\n",i); // 7
}
8
return(0);
9
}
10
Printing n even numbers: Output:
#include <stdio.h> Enter the number:10
int main() 0
{ 2
int n,i,sum=0; 4
6
printf("Enter the number:"); 8
scanf("%d", &n); 10
for (i = 0; i <= n; i=i+2)
printf("%d\n",i);
return(0);
}
Sum of n Odd numbers: Output:
#include <stdio.h> Enter the number
int main() 10
{ Sum of entered odd number is
int n,i,sum=0; 25
printf("Enter the number\n");scanf("%d", &n);
for (i = 1; i <= n; i=i+2)
sum = sum + i;
printf("Sum of entered odd number is %d",sum);
return(0);
}

78
 I YEAR/I SEM

Sum of Squares of a number: Output:

#include <stdio.h> Enter the number:4 sum
int main() is 30:
{
int n,i,sum=0;
printf("Enter the number:");scanf("%d", &n); for (i
= 1; i <= n; i=i+1)
{
sum=sum+(i*i);
}
printf("sum is %d:\n",sum);return(0);
}

To find Factorial of the given number: Output:

#include <stdio.h> Enter the number:5 sum
int main() is 120:
{
int n,i,fact=1;
printf("Enter the number:");scanf("%d", &n); for (i
= 1; i <= n; i=i+1)
fact=fact*i;
printf("sum is %d:\n",fact);return(0);
}

Sum of series 1+1/2+1/3+...............+ 1/n Output:

#include <stdio.h> Enter the number 5
int main() Sum of the series =2.283333
{
double sum=0.0,n,i;
printf("Enter the number\n"); scanf("%lf", &n); for
(i = 1; i <= n; i++)
sum = sum + (1/i);
printf("Sum of the series =%lf ",sum);return(0);
}

Sum of series 1/1!+1/2!+1/3!+................+ 1/n! Output:

#include <stdio.h> Enter the number 5
int main() Sum of the series =0.008333
{
double sum=0.0,n,i,fact=1;
printf("Enter the number\n"); scanf("%lf", &n); for (i
= 1; i <= n; i++)
fact=fact*i;
sum = sum + (1/fact);
printf("Sum of the series =%lf ",sum);return(0);
}

Fibonacci Series: Enter the number of terms: 10

#include <stdio.h> 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,
int main()

79
 I YEAR/I SEM

{
int i, n, a = 0, b = 1, next; printf("Enter
the number of terms: "); scanf("%d",
&n);
for (i = 1; i <= n; ++i)
{
printf("%d,",a); next=a+b;
a=b;
b=next;
}return 0;

To find Factors of a given number: Output:

#include<stdio.h> Enter a number to find its
int main() factors
{ 10
int n,i; factors are: 1
printf("Enter a number to find its factors\n"); factors are: 2
scanf("%d",&n); factors are: 5
for (i=1;i<=n;i++) factors are: 10
{
if(n%i==0)
printf("factors are: %d\n",i);
}
return(0);
}
Program to check the number is prime or not: Output:
#include<stdio.h> int enter the no
main() 11
{ number is prime
int n,i,flag; printf("enter the no\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=2;i<n;i++) Note:
{ Flag is a Boolean variable that
if(n%i==0) has only 2 states (0 and 1)
{ Eg, On/Off, True/False,
flag=0;
Yes/No
break;
}
}
if(flag==0)
printf("number is not prime \n"); else
printf("number is prime\n"); return(0);
}

80
 I YEAR/I SEM

Nested for loop:

- One for loop inside another for loop.

Flowchart:

Program to multiply numbers using nested for: Output:

#include <stdio.h> 1
int main() 2
{ 2
int i,j; 4
for(i=1;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=1;j<3;j++)
{
printf("%d\n",i*j);
}
}
return(0);
}

81
 I YEAR/I SEM

Loop Control Statements:

C language allows jumping from one statement to another within a loop as well as jumping
out of the loop.
1. break
2. continue
3. goto
4. return
1) break
statement
 When break statement is encountered inside a loop, the loop is immediately
terminated and program control comes out of the loop and executes the statement
immediately following the loop.
 It can be used in iteration only(looping statements).
 Cannot be used in conditional statements(if, else, else if).
Syntax:
break;

2) continue statement:
C Continue statement are used to skips the rest of the current iteration in a loop and returns to the top
of the loop.
Syntax:
continue;

82
 I YEAR/I SEM

Example:
Use of break statement to Output: Use of continue statement to Output:
print numbers: print numbers:
#include <stdio.h> enter the enter the
int main()
number: 10 #include <stdio.h> number: 10
{ int main()
int i,num; 1 { 1
printf("enter the number: "); 2 int i,num; 2
scanf("%d",&num);
3 printf("enter the number: "); 3
for(i=1;i<=num;i++)
{ 4 scanf("%d",&num); 4
if(i==5) for(i=1;i<=num;i++) skipped
{ { 6
printf("stop"); break; if(i==5)
7
} {
8
printf("%d\n",i); printf("skipped\n");
continue; 9
}
return(0); } 10
} printf("%d\n",i);
}
return(0);
}
Break Continue
Break statement is used to transfer the Continue is used to skip some statement of
controlof the program to outside loop or the loop and moves to the next iteration in the
switch case statement. loop.
It is used in loop as well as switch case. It is used only within the loop.
Syntax: break; Syntax: continue;

3) goto statement:
 The goto statement is used for altering the normal sequence of program execution by
transferring control to some other part of the program.
 When a goto statement is encountered in a C program, the control jumps directly to the label
mentioned in the goto statement.
 It us used when loops are deeply nested and simple break statement cannot work
effieciently.
Syntax:
goto label_name;
…
…
label_name

83
 I YEAR/I SEM

Flowchart: Program to print sum

of no’s using goto
statement:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int sum=0,i;
for(i = 0; i<=10; i++)
{
sum = sum+i;
if(i==5)
{
goto addition;
}
}
addition:
printf("sum is %d",
sum);
return(0);
}
Output:
sum is 15

Preprocessor Directives:
 Preprocessor is a program which will be executed automatically before passing the source program
to compiler. This process is called pre-processing.
 The preprocessor provides the ability for the inclusion of header files, macro expansions,
conditional compilation, and line control.
 Commands used in preprocessor are called preprocessor directives.
 They begin with "#" symbol and should be not ended with (;)
 Proprocessor Directive can be place any where in the program, but generally it place top of the program
before defining the first function.
Preprocessor directives in C:
 Macro substitution directives. example: #define
 File inclusion directives. example: #include
 Conditional compilation directive. example: #if, #else, #ifdef, #undef, #endif
 Miscellaneous directive. example: #error, #line

84
 I YEAR/I SEM

(i) Macro preprocessor:

Example: To print PI value
#include<stdio.h> #define
PI 3.14
int main()
{
printf("%f",PI);
}
Three types of macros are
Simple macros Augmented macros Nested macros
Define symbolic It is used to define more The macro defined within another
constants complex expressions macro is called nested macro.
Example: Example: Example:
#define A 100 #define sqr(n) (n*n) #define sq(n) (n*n) #define
#define tablesize 10 cube(n) (n*n*n)

(ii) File Inclusion:

This is used to include an external file which contains functions into the program. It enables code reusability.

Syntax Example
#include "filename" #include"example.c" #include<stdio.h>
#include <filename>
 The filename is quoted in quotes (“ ”), then it searches that file in current directories.
 When the filename is quoted in angle brackets (< >), then it searches the file in standard
directories only.
(iii) Conditional Directives:
#if, #else and #endif:
If given condition is true, "If" clause statement is included in source file . Otherwise, else clause statement
is included in source file for compilation and execution.

85
 I YEAR/I SEM

Example: Tocheck the Vote eligibility using #if, #else and #endif
#include<stdio.h> Output:
#define AGE 5 Not eligible
int main()
{
#if (AGE>=18)
{
printf("Eligible for voting");
}
#else
{
printf("\n Not eligible");
}
#endif
return(0);
}
#ifdef, #else and #endif:
- #ifdef" directive checks whether particular macro is defined or not.
- If it is defined, "If" clause statements are included in source file. Otherwise, "else" clause
statements are included in source file for compilation and execution.
- In the below example1 macro is not defined. So, else part is executed.
Example: Example:
#include<stdio.h> #include<stdio.h>
int main() #define AGE 1
{ int main()
#ifdef AGE {
{ #ifdef AGE
printf("Eligible for voting\n"); {
} printf("Eligible for voting\n");
#else }
{ #else
printf("Not eligible\n"); {
} printf("Not eligible\n");
#endif }
return(0); #endif
} return(0);
}
Output: Output:
Not eligible Eligible for voting
undef
This directive undefines existing macro in the program.
In below program we first undefine age variable and again it is defined with new value.
Example: Undefining the macro Output:
#include<stdio.h> First define value for age is:
#define age 20 20

86
 I YEAR/I SEM

int main() Age after undef redefine is:

{ 30
printf("First defined value for age is: %d\n",age);
#undef age // undefining variable
#define age 30 // redefining age with new value
printf("Age after undef redefine is: %d",age);
return(0);
}

PART A:
1. What are variables? Give Examples (M/J’16)(N/D’14)
2. Define implicit type conversion (M/J’16)
3. What is an array? Give Example (M/J’16) (M/J’15)
4. Define strings. Give examples(M/J’16)
5. What is meant by linking process? (N/D’15)
6. What are the input functions and output functions in C? (N/D’15) (M/J’15)
7. Write a C program to store Fibonacci series in an array. (N/D’15)
8. List the string functions available in C. (N/D’15)
9. List some pre-processor directives. (N/D’15)
10. What are the importance of keyword in C? (M/J’15)
11. How is a character string declared? (M/J’15)
12. Give the use of pre-processor directives. (M/J’15) (N/D’14) (M/J’14)
13. Give an Example of ternary operator. (N/D’14)
14. Describe float array of size 5 and assign 5 values in it. (N/D’14)
15. Give an example for initialization of string array.
16. Define static storage class. (N/D’14)
17. List different data types available in C. (M/J’14)
18. Write a C program to find factorial of the number using iteration. (M/J’14)
19. Write an example code to declare two dimensional array. (M/J’14)
20. List any 4 string handling functions (M/J’14)

PART B:
1. Explain different types of operators in detail.(M/J’16) (M/J’15) (N/D’14)
2. Discuss basic data types in C (M/J’16)
3. Describe various input and output statements in detail. (M/J’16)
4. Write a C program for the following series 1+2+3+4+…N (M/J’16)
5. Write a C program to convert the number of vowels in your name (M/J’16)
6. Write a C program to multiply two matrices/ Write a C program for two 3*3 Matrix
(M/J’16)/(N/D’15) (N/D’14)
7. Write a C program to check whether the given string is palindrome or not (M/J’16)
8. Write a C program to arrange the given 10 numbers in descending order (M/J’16
9. Explain various storage classes in detail. (M/J’16) (N/D’15) (M/J’15) (M/J’14)
10. Describe about pre-processors with suitable examples. (M/J’16)

87
 I YEAR/I SEM
11. Describe the structure of C program using ‘calculator program’ example. (N/D’15)
12. Write short notes on branching statements in C. (N/D’15)
13. Write in detail about various looping statements with suitable example.(N/D’15) (M/J’15)
(N/D’14)
14. Write a C program to find determinant of the resultant matrix. (N/D’15)
15. Write the following programs (N/D’15)
(i) To sort the given set of strings alphabetically
(ii) To print whether each word is palindrome or not
(iii) To count the length of the string
16. What are constants? Explain various types of constants in C. (M/J’15)
17. Write a C program to solve(roots of) Quadratic Equation ((M/J’15) (M/J’14)
18. Write a C program to add two matrices. (M/J’15)
19. Write a C program to search a number in an array of elements. (M/J’15) (N/D’14)
20. Write a C program to arrange the given 10 numbers in ascending order/ Write a C program to
sort array of numbers. (N/D’14) (M/J’15) (M/J’14)
21. Explain various string handling functions in C. (M/J’15)
22. Explain various string operations. Write a C program to find the length of the string without
using build in function. (N/D’14)
23. Write a short notes on (i) #include<stdio.h> (ii) ifdef.. # endif (N/D’14)
24. Write a C program to check the given number is prime or not (M/J’14)
25. Write a C program to find sum of digits of a number (M/J’14)
26. Explain entry and exit checked conditional structure with example(M/J’14)
27. Write a C program to subtract two matrices and display the resultant matrix.(M/J’14)
28. (M/J’14)

***************