Human Physiology

Excretory Products
& their Elimination

Dr. R. S. Satyan, Senior Lecturer - Zoology (Medical)

Aakash-Byju’s (Ashok Nagar, Chennai)
 INTRODUCTION
• Animals accumulate nitrogenous wastes (e.g.
ammonia, urea, uric acid), carbon dioxide, water
and ions (e.g. Na+, K+, Cl–, phosphate, sulphate),
pigments, spices, drugs, inorganic substances etc.
either by metabolic activities or by other means
like excess ingestion.
• These substances have to be removed totally or
partially.
• They can be divided into 2 categories: Volatile &
Non-volatile.
• CO2 is volatile & other non-volatile wastes are
eliminated as aqueous solution/ suspension.
 Nitrogenous
Waste Materials
Nitrogenous wastes are
end products of protein
metabolism. They vary
in different animals.

Ammonia is the most

toxic followed by urea
& uric acid.

Some animals excrete

amino acids.
Body can store carbohydrates & fats for future use
but not amino acids. Aa’s are deaminated (-NH2
group removed). The remaining organic acid may be
used as energy source or converted to carbohydrate
or fat for later use.

In humans, deamination takes place in the liver.

Enzymes which catalyse this reaction are called
deaminases (e.g. Adenine deaminase)
 Ammonotelism
• The process of excreting ammonia is
Ammonotelism.
• Ammonia is formed by oxidative deamination of
amino acids.
• Its readily soluble in water (1gm in 500ml) & are
toxic at higher concentrations.
• Amoeba, Paramecium, Hydra excrete it directly
from cells. Earthworms, leech, prawn, bony fishes
release NH3 in urine (as ammonium ions).
• These animals are called ammonotelic animals.
• Kidneys do not play any significant role in its
removal.
 Ureotelism
• Mammals, many terrestrial amphibians (e.g. frog
& toad) and marine fishes (also alligators &
freshwater turtles) mainly excrete urea and are
called ureotelic animals.
• Urea is formed in the liver by urea cycle that
combines NH3 & CO2 and released into the blood
which is filtered and excreted out by the kidneys.
• Some amount of urea may be retained in the
kidney matrix of some of these animals to
maintain a desired osmolarity.
2 NH3 + CO2 NH2-CO-NH2 + H2O
Ammonia Carbon dioxide Urea Water
 Dual Excretion
• Some ammonotelic organisms are partly
ureotelic.
• Earthworm excretes NH3 when enough water is
available but excrete urea in dry locations.
• Lung fish & African toad are ammonotelic in
water & becomes ureotelic during hibernation in
mud.
 Uricotelism
• Elimination of uric acid as the main nitrogenous
waste is called as uricotelism.
• Uric acid is formed from NH3 produced by
degradation of proteins, mostly in liver & kidneys.
• Uric acid is less toxic than NH3 & NH2-CO-NH2. It is
almost solid.
• Lizards, snakes & desert tortoise, birds, land
snails & insects excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric
acid in the form of pellet or paste with a minimum
loss of water and are called uricotelic animals.
 Aminotelism
• Elimination of amino acids as waste is called as
aminotelism.
• Certain Molluscs & Echinoderms excrete amino
acids.
Other Nitrogenous wastes
• Allantoin, creatine, creatinine, hippuric acid are
other nitrogenous wastes.
• Spiders excrete purines, adenine & guanine
directly.
Urea Synthesis (Ornithine cycle)
It is also called as Krebs-Henseleit cycle
 NH3 + CO2 + ATP

carbamoyl phosphate (CH₂NO₅P²⁻)

+ Ornithine
Citrulline
+ Aspartic acid
Arginosuccinic acid

Fumaric acid & Arginine

Arginase

Urea & Ornithine

 Excretory Structures
• In most of the invertebrates, the excretory structures
are simple tubular forms whereas vertebrates have
complex tubular organs called kidneys.
• Protonephridia/flame cells are the excretory
structures in Platyhelminthes (Planaria),
Amphioxus, rotifers & some annelids.
• Protonephridia are primarily concerned with ionic
and fluid volume regulation (osmoregulation).
• Nephridia are the tubular excretory structures of
earthworms and other annelids.
• It helps to remove nitrogenous waste and maintain a
fluid and ionic balance.
Flame cell of a Planarian
Nephridium of an Earthworm
• Malpighian tubules are the excretory structures
of most of the insects including cockroaches.
• They help in the removal of nitrogenous wastes
and osmoregulation.
• Antennal glands or green glands perform the
excretory function in crustaceans like prawns.
 Osmoconformers Vs Osmoregulators

• Osmoconformers: Animals that do not control the

osmotic concentration of their body fluids. They
alter osmolarity of their body fluids. E.g. All marine
invertebrates & fresh water invertebrates. Hag
fish is a vertebrate osmoconformer.
• Osmoregulators: Animals that maintain an internal
osmolarity different from the surrounding in which
they live. E.g. Most vertebrates are strict
osmoregulators. Aquatic invertebrates too are
strict or limited osmoregulators.
Freshwater animals

Marine animals
 Water & Solute Regulation in Fresh Water
• Osmolarity of water: 50 mOsm L.-1
• Freshwater vertebrates: 200 - 300 mOsm L.-1
• The body fluids of freshwater animals are
hypertonic to their surrounding environment.
• Issue: Loss of body salt to outer environment &
entry of excess water.
• Protozoans like Amoeba & Paramecium have
contractile vacuoles to pump water outside their
system.

Adaptation: Scales or adipose tissue, dilute urine,

presence of Ionocytes/ chloride cells.
 Water & Solute Regulation in Marine Environment

• Osmolarity of water: 1000 mOsm L.-1

• Osmolarity of marine fishes: 300 mOsm L.-1
• Marine bony fishes have body fluids hypotonic to
the sea water.
• Issue: Loss of body water from permeable
surfaces.

Adaptation: Drinking excess sea water.

• To compensate the water loss marine fishes drink

seawater that eventually ends up in excess salt
intake.
• This is facilitated by the presence of Ionocytes/
chloride cells of the gill membrane that will
exude excess monovalent ions into sea water.

In general the body fluids of marine

invertebrates like hag fish & ascidians will
be isosmotic to the sea water. Osmolarity
is increased inside the body by osmolytes.
Therefore, retention of osmolytes reduces
osmoregulatory challenges.
E.g. of osmolytes: Urea & TMAO
(Trimethylamine oxide)
 HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
In humans, the excretory system consists of a pair of
kidneys, one pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a
urethra.
• Kidneys are reddish brown, bean-shaped
structures situated between the levels of last
thoracic & 3rd lumbar vertebra close to the dorsal
inner wall of the abdominal cavity.
• Each kidney of an adult human measures 10-12
cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm in thickness
with an average weight of 120-170 g.
• Left kidney is little higher than the right one
because of more space occupied by the liver on
the right side (only in humans).
• Kidney is covered by 3 protective layers:

1. Renal capsule: The innermost tough protective

cover made up of white fibrous connective
tissue, elastic fibres & muscles.

2. Adipose capsule: It is the middle cover

involving the adipose tissue (insulation).

3. Renal fascia: It is the outermost fibrous cover.

• Towards the centre of the inner concave surface
of the kidney is a notch called hilum through
which ureter, blood vessels and nerves enter.
• Inner to the hilum is a broad funnel shaped space
called the renal pelvis with projections called
calyces.
• Inside the kidney, there are two zones, an outer
cortex and an inner medulla.
• The medulla is divided into a few conical masses
(medullary pyramids) projecting into the calyces.
• The cortex extends in between the medullary
pyramids as renal columns called Columns of
Bertini.
 Ureters
• They are a pair of fine, whitish, distensible
muscular tubes (length: 25-30 cm, diameter:
3mm)
• Ureters develop from hilum, descend along the
abdominal wall, bend obliquely inwards & upwards
to open into urinary bladder in the trigone region
by slits, one on each side.
 Urinary Bladder
• It is a median pyriform sac which is distensible.
• The fully distended bladder is ovoid in shape.
 Nephron

• Each kidney has nearly one million complex

tubular structures called nephrons, which are the
functional units.

• Each nephron has two parts: Glomerulus & the

renal tubule.

a) Glomerulus: It is a tuft of capillaries formed by

the afferent arteriole - a fine branch of renal
artery. Blood from the glomerulus is carried away
by an efferent arteriole.
Structure of
Nephron
b) Renal tubule: The tubule begins with a double
walled cup-like structure called Bowman’s capsule,
which encloses the glomerulus.

Bowman’s capsule:

• It is a blind double-walled cup-shaped structure.

• The two walls are the inner visceral & the outer
parietal layer.
• Both are single layered & are supported by
basement membrane.
✓ Visceral layer: It consists of flat squamous
epithelial cells on the periphery & specialized
podocytes in the remaining part. A podocyte has
number of interdigitated evaginations called
pedicels/feet. They enclose slit pores/filtration
slits.

✓ Parietal layer (outer wall): It consists of flat,

squamous epithelium. The space between 2
layers of the bowman’s capsule is called as lumen
or capsular space.
Malpighian body (Renal corpuscle):
• Glomerulus along with bowman’s capsule is called
as Renal corpuscle.
Real Glomerulus & Nephron
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT):

• The lower part of bowman’s capsule leads to PCT.

• It is present in the cortex layer.
• PCT is highly coiled & surrounded by peritubular
blood capillaries.
• PCT is lined by cuboidal epithelium having brush
borders with long microvilli.
• The cells contain abundant mitochondria & food
reserve for providing energy to perform active
absorption.
 Henle’s Loop, Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) &
Collecting duct:

• A hairpin shaped Henle’s loop is the next part of

the tubule which has a descending and an
ascending limb.
• The ascending limb continues as another highly
coiled tubular region called distal convoluted
tubule (DCT).
• The DCTs of many nephrons open into a straight
tube called collecting duct, many of which
converge and open into the renal pelvis through
medullary pyramids in the calyces.
Types of Nephron’s:

• In majority of nephrons, the Loop of Henle is too

short and extends only very little into the
medulla.
• Such nephrons are called Cortical nephrons.
• Whereas in others, it is very long and runs deep
into the medulla.
• These nephrons are called Juxta Medullary
nephrons.
• 85% of the nephrons in humans are cortical
nephrons whereas 15% belongs to
juxtamedullary type.
Vasa Recta:

• The efferent arteriole emerging from the

glomerulus forms a fine capillary network
around the renal tubule called the peritubular
capillaries.
• A minute vessel of this network runs parallel to
the Henle’s loop forming a ‘U’ shaped structure
called Vasa recta.
• Vasa recta is absent or highly reduced in cortical
nephrons.
 Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JGA)

• The Juxtaglomerular apparatus is a specialized

structure formed by the DCT & the glomerular
afferent arteriole.
• It is located near the vascular pole of the
glomerulus
• The main function of JGA is to regulate blood
pressure & the filtration rate of the glomerulus.
 URINE FORMATION
• Urine formation involves three main processes:
Glomerular filtration, Reabsorption & Secretion,
that takes place in different parts of the nephron.

• The first step in urine formation is the filtration of

blood, which is carried out by the glomerulus and
is called Glomerular filtration.

• On an average, 1100-1200 ml of blood is filtered

by the kidneys per minute which constitute
roughly 1/5th of the blood pumped out by each
ventricle of the heart in a minute.
• The glomerular capillary blood pressure causes
filtration of blood through 3 layers:
• the endothelium of glomerular blood vessels
• the epithelium of Bowman’s capsule and
• a basement membrane between these two layers.
• The amount of the filtrate formed by the kidneys
per minute is called glomerular filtration rate
(GFR).

• GFR in a healthy individual is approximately 125

ml/min. (180L/ day).

• A comparison of the volume of the filtrate formed

per day with that of the urine released (1.5L),
suggest that nearly 99 per cent of the filtrate has
to be reabsorbed by the renal tubules.

• This process is called reabsorption.

 Tubular Reabsorption & Secretion

• The tubular epithelial cells in different segments

of nephron perform this function by active or
passive mechanism.
• Glucose, amino acids, Na+ etc. are absorbed
actively whereas nitrogenous wastes are absorbed
passively.
• Secretion of metabolic wastes by tubular cells into
the filtrate also occur.
• K+, H +, ammonia, creatinine, hippuric acid, drugs,
pigments & toxins are secreted.
 Development of Filtration Pressure

The flow of blood through glomerular capillaries is

under pressure. This is due to 2 reasons:

1. Large diameter of afferent arteriole & smaller

diameter of efferent arteriole.

2. Natural arterial pressure is due to the pumping

of the heart. Blood pressure in the glomerular
blood is about 60mmHg (Glomerular
hydrostatic pressure - GHP)
3. Osmotic concentration of the proteinaceous
content of the glomerular blood is 30mmHg
(Blood Colloidal Osmotic Pressure - BCOP)

4. Pressure of interstitial fluid & renal filtrate is

20mmHg (Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure - CHP)

5. Pressure exerted on glomerular blood for

undergoing filtration is 10-25mmHg
(Glomerular Filtration Pressure - GFP)

GFP = GHP – (BCOP + CHP)

60 – (30 + 20) = 10 mmHg.
 Function of the Tubules
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
• PCT is lined by simple cuboidal brush border
epithelium which increases the surface area for
reabsorption.
• Nearly all of the essential nutrients, and 70-80 per
cent of electrolytes & water are reabsorbed by this
segment.
• PCT also helps to maintain the pH & ionic balance
of the body fluids by selective secretion of
hydrogen, ammonia & potassium ions into the
-
filtrate and by absorption of HCO3 from it.
 Loop of Henle (LOH)

• This region plays a significant role in the

maintenance of high osmolarity of medullary
interstitial fluid (MSF).
• The descending limb of the loop is permeable to
water but almost impermeable to electrolytes.
• This concentrates the filtrate as it moves down.
• The ascending limb is impermeable to water but
allows transport of electrolytes actively/
passively.
• Therefore, as the concentrated filtrate pass
upward, it gets diluted due to the passage of
electrolytes to the medullary fluid.
 Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)

• Conditional reabsorption of Na+ & water takes

place in this segment.
• DCT is also capable of reabsorption of HCO3 -
and selective secretion of hydrogen, potassium
ions & NH3 to maintain the pH and sodium-
potassium balance in blood.
Collecting Duct (CD)

• This long duct extends from the cortex of the

kidney to the inner parts of the medulla.
• Large amounts of water could be reabsorbed
from this region to produce a concentrated
urine.
• This segment allows passage of small amounts of
urea into the medullary interstitium to keep up
the osmolarity.
• It also plays a role in the maintenance of pH and
ionic balance of blood by the selective secretion
of H+ and K+ ions.
Reabsorption & Secretion of major substances
 Countercurrent mechanism in
Nephron & Vasa Recta

• Mammals have the ability to produce a

concentrated urine.
• The Henle’s loop & vasa recta play a significant
role in this.
• The flow of filtrate in the two limbs of Henle’s loop
is in opposite directions and thus forms a counter
current.
• The flow of blood through the two limbs of vasa
recta is also in a counter current pattern.
• The proximity between the Henle’s loop & vasa
recta, as well as the counter current in them help
in maintaining an increasing osmolarity towards
the inner medullary interstitium (300 mOsmolL-1
in the cortex to about 1200 mOsmolL-1) in the
inner medulla.
• This gradient is mainly caused by NaCl & urea.
• NaCl is transported by the ascending limb of
Henle’s loop which is exchanged with the
descending limb of vasa recta.
• NaCl is returned to the interstitium by the
ascending portion of vasa recta.
• Similarly, small amounts of urea enter the thin
segment of the ascending limb of Henle’s loop
which is transported back to the interstitium by
the collecting tubule.

• Presence of such interstitial gradient helps in an

easy passage of water from the collecting tubule
thereby concentrating the filtrate (urine).

• Human kidneys can produce urine nearly 4 times

concentrated than the initial filtrate formed.
 Osmolarity & Osmolality

Osmolarity, is the measure of solute

concentration. Its defined as the number of
osmoles (Osm) of solute per litre of solution.
Osmolality is the no. of Osm/ Kg of solvent.

The unit of osmotic concentration is the osmole.

This is non-SI unit of measurement that defines the
number of moles of solute that contribute to the
osmotic pressure of a solution. A milliosmole
(mOsm) is 1/1,000 of an osmole.
 Vasopressin (ADH)
Osmolality of blood
increases with dehydration
and decreases with over-
hydration. In normal people,
increased osmolality in the
blood will stimulate
secretion of anti-diuretic
hormone (ADH). This will
result in increased water
reabsorption, more
concentrated urine, and
less concentrated blood
plasma.
 REGULATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTION
The functioning of the kidneys is efficiently
monitored and regulated by hormonal feedback
mechanisms involving the hypothalamus, JGA and
to a certain extent, the heart.
Osmoreceptors in the body are activated by
changes in blood volume, body fluid volume and
ionic concentration.
An excessive loss of fluid from the body can
activate these receptors which stimulate the
hypothalamus to release anti-diuretic hormone
(ADH) or Vasopressin from the neurohypophysis.
• ADH facilitates water reabsorption from latter
parts of the tubule, thereby preventing diuresis
(excessive urine production).
• An increase in body fluid volume can switch off
the osmoreceptors & suppress the ADH release
to complete the feedback.
• ADH can also affect the kidney function by its
constrictor effects on blood vessels
(vasoconstriction).
• This causes an increase in blood pressure.
• An increase in bp can increase the glomerular
blood flow and thereby the GFR.
 Renin
Angiotensin
Aldosterone
system
(RAAS)
• An increase in blood ANF
flow to the atria of the
heart can cause the
release of Atrial
Natriuretic Factor (ANF).
• ANF can cause
vasodilation (dilation of
blood vessels) and
thereby decrease the
blood pressure.
• ANF mechanism,
therefore, acts as a
check on the renin-
angiotensin mechanism.
ANF & RAAS Inhibition
Excretory organs of the body
 Abnormal Constituents of Urine

• Protein
Glomerulonephritis (Injury to renal tract)
(Albumin)
• Bile salts Jaundice
• Glucose Diabetes Mellitus
• Ketone bodies Diabetes Mellitus & Prolonged fasting
• Creatinine Hyperthyroidism
 DISORDERS OF EXCRETORY SYSTEM

1. Uremia: Due to the malfunctioning of the

kidneys accumulation of urea in blood is
observed. It is called as ‘End stage renal disease’
(ESRD). This is harmful & may lead to kidney
failure (renal function < 5%)

2. Renal Calculi: Stone or insoluble mass of

crystallized salts (sodium oxalate) formed within
the kidney. Treatment includes analgesics &
drinking lots of water to help pass the stones.
3. Glomerulonephritis: It is a group of diseases that
injure the Glomeruli. Its also called nephritis &
nephrotic syndrome. When the kidney is injured, it
cannot get rid of wastes and extra fluid in the body.
4. Bladder cancer: Growth of abnormal tissue, known
as a tumour, develops in the bladder lining. In some
cases, the tumour spreads into the bladder muscle.
The most common symptom of bladder cancer is
blood in the urine, which is usually painless.
5. Polycystic kidney disease (PKD): It is an inherited
kidney disorder. It causes fluid-filled cysts to form in
the kidneys. PKD may impair kidney function and
eventually cause kidney failure. PKD is the fourth
leading cause of kidney failure. People with PKD may
also develop cysts in the liver and other complications.
HAEMODIALYSIS