Learning Objectives

⚫ 1.1 Introduction
⚫ 1.2 General outline of plant kingdom (Lower Cryptogams:
Thallophytes- Algae, Fungi & Lichens;
⚫ Higher Cryptogams: Bryophytes and Pteridophytes;
⚫ Phanerogams: Gymnosperms and Angiosperms-
Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons).
⚫ 1.3 Distinguishing characters of these groups and mention
few common examples from each.
 1.1. Introduction to Plant Kingdom
⚫ Plant classification sysytem is based on form or habit were introduced by the
Greeks and, by many susequent workers and continued up to the time of Carl
Linnaeus (1707-1778).
⚫ Linnaaeus in 1737 introduced artificial system of classification based on
number of sex organs and presence or absence of flower so it is also called
as sexual system.
⚫ Linnaeus grouped all plant under 24 classes out of that 23 are flowering
plant class and in one (24th) class he includedall nonflowering plant and this
group is called as Cryptogams.
⚫ The kingdom plantae on the basis of thallus structure or plant body, mode of
nutrition and nature of reproduction is devide into two division i.e.
Cryptogams and Phanerogams.
⚫ The outline of the classification of Kingdom plantae is as follows:
1.2 General outline of plant Kingdom
 Lower Cryptogams- Thallophyta
⚫ General character of Cryptogams:

⚫ A cryptogam (scientific name Cryptogamae) is a plant that reproduces by

spores, without flowers or seeds. "Cryptogamae" (Greek word kryptos
means "hidden" and gameein means "to marry") means "hidden
reproduction", referring to the fact that no seed is produced, thus cryptogams
represent the non-seed bearing plants.

⚫ Lower Cryptogams- Thallophyta:

Plant body is thalloid, not differntiated into root, stem and leaves. It include:
⚫ 1. Algae,
⚫ 2. Fungi,
⚫ 3. Lihen
 1. Algae
⚫ Plant body may be unicellular e.g. Chlorella (non-motile), Chlamydomonas
(motile) or multicellular unbranded filamentous like Spirogyra and Ulothrix,
or branched filamentous like Chara or colonial forms like Volvos

⚫ Some are huge macroscopic such as sea weeds which measure more than 60
meters in length. e.g. [Link] are represented by over 7,175 species in
66 genera.

⚫ Variation in Habit , Habitat, Size, form and reproduction.

⚫ Thalloid plant body, Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic, unicellular or multicellular.
⚫ Autotrophic mode of nutrition.
⚫ Chlorophyll bearing plant body is autotrophic,thalloid.
⚫ Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic
⚫ Mostly aquatic,marine or fresh water, some are terrestrial
⚫ Both generation (Saprophytic and Gamatophytic) are independent.
⚫ Common examples are Volvox, Fucus, Spirogyra, Chara, Polysiphonia,
Ulothrix, etc.
Algae showing their diversity of shape and growth form (multicellular, unicellular,
and colonial)
 2. Fungi
⚫ The fungi ( sing. Fungus; L., a mashroom) are heterotrophic organisms
of very diverse form, size, physiology and mode of reproduction.

⚫ Defination- Fungi are achlorophyllous, heterotrophic, eukaryotic and

spore bearing organism whose cell wall is made up of chitin or cellulose
or both, which reproduce by asexual and sexual spores.

⚫ The study of fungi is known as Mycology (Gr. mykes, a mushroom and

logoes, discourse)

⚫ There are about 5100 genra and 250000 species of fungi.

⚫ Fillamentous plant body is called as mycellium.

⚫ Hyphae: single fillament is called as hypha (Pl. Hyphae), group or web

of hypha is called as mycellium.
⚫ Cross wall in between two adjcent cell is called septum (pl. Septa).
hypha with septum is called septate hyphae and without septum is
called as aseptate hyphae.
⚫ Coenocytic hypha: hyphae without septum is called as coenocytic
hypha.
⚫ Mode of nutrition is heterotrophic-Heterotrophy - 'other food'
⚫ Saprophytes or saprobes - feed on dead tissues or organic waste
(decomposers)
⚫ Symbionts - mutually beneficial relationship between a fungus and
another organism
⚫ Parasites - feeding on living tissue of a host. Parasites that cause disease
are called pathogens.
⚫ Reserve good material is glycogen and oil drops.

⚫ Reproduction :-Usually there are two broadly recognizable types of

reproduction; asexual and sexual

⚫ Asexual Reproduction by means of asexual spore , flagellated spore

are called as zoospores and nonflagellated spores are called as
sporangiospore and cinidia.

⚫ Sexual spores are Ascospores and Basidiospores produced in ascus

and basidium respectivly. In deuteromycetes sexual reproduction is
absent so these fungi is called as imperfect fungi.,
⚫ Common examples are yeast,Penicillium notatum,Agaricua,Albugo etc.
 3. Lichen
⚫ A Lichen is an intimate association of a fungus and an algae in which both
the organism intertwine to form a single thallus.
⚫ Algal partner is called phycobiont and is from cynophyceae or
Chlorophyceae. Mycobiont (fungal partner) from Ascomycetes are called
Ascolichen and if it is from Basidiomycetes it is called as Basidiolichen.
⚫ Lichen are widely distributed on every convenient and in varied habitat.
⚫ Lichen are found growing on the leaves, the bark of tree, on decaying wood,
on rock and on soil.
⚫ Lichen can survive in extremes of heat, cold and drought.
⚫ Lichen are of many different forms and colours. They are commonly form
thin thalli.
⚫ Morphologically lichen are classified into three types, crustose lichen,
Foliose lichen and Fructiose lichen.
⚫ Common examples are Parmelia,Usnea,Graphis.
The three types of lichens are shown here. (a)crustose lichen (b) Tfoliose lichen (c)
fruticose lichen
 Heigher Cryptogams-Bryophytes and Pteridophytes

Bryophytes:
⚫ Plant body is thalloid i.e. not differentiated into root stem and leaves
⚫ The plants usually grow in moist and shady places.

⚫ Plant body simple in lower forms (liverworts and hornworts) attached to

substratum by unbranched,unicellular hair like structure called rhizoid and
higher forms are erect, foliose with stem and leaf like structure

⚫ Internal tissue are homogenous or differentiated paranchymatous.

⚫ Bryophytes reproduce by Vegetative and sexual reproduction method
⚫ Vegetative reproduction: Fragmentation , adventitious branches, tubers
(Riccia), gemmae (Marchantia)
⚫ Sexual reproduction is always Oogamous type.
⚫ The sex organ are protected by complex multicellular jacket layer
⚫ The male reproductive organs are antheridia and female reproductive organs are
archegonia.

⚫ Water is essential for fertilization. After fusion of anthrezoid and egg nucleus zygote is
formed and this is the end of gametophytic phase.

⚫ Zygote is the first cell of sporophytic generation, Zygote under go repeated division and
produce multicellular embryo.
⚫ The embryo develop into saprophyte which is called as sporogonium. The sporogonium
developing plant body is called as the sporophyte.

⚫ Sporophyte is depend on gametophyte for nutrition and it divide into foot, seta and capsule.
Capsule produce meiospore.

⚫ Meiospore under suitable condition produce gametophytic plant.

⚫ Life cycle of bryophytes shows two alternate genration, gametophytic phase is independent
and sporophytic phase is depend on gametophytic phase

⚫ Some of the common examples are Riccia,Marchantia, Funaria, Sphagnum, Antheoceros,

etc.
 Pteridophytes
⚫ Pteridophyta (Gr, Pteron = feather, phyton = plant), the name was originally given to
those groups of plants which have well developed pinnate or frond like leaves.
Pteridophytes are cryptogams (Gr. kruptos = hidden, and Gamos = wedded) which have
well developed vascular tissue.
⚫ Plant body is sporophytic and can be differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
⚫ Vascular tissue is present in stem and root. It consists of xylem and phloem. Xylem
consists of tracheids only and phloem has only sieve tubes.
⚫ Reproduction takes place by means of spores which are produced inside sporangia.
⚫ Spores on germination give rise to multicellular gametophytic bodies called prothalli
(sing. Prothallus).
⚫ Antheridia and archegonia are developed on [Link] is surrounded by a
single layered sterile jacket.
⚫ Archegonium consists of four vertical rows of neck cells, 1-2 neck canal cells, ventral
canal cell and egg.
⚫ Antherozoids are unicellular, biflagellate (e.g., Selaginella) or multiflagellate (e.g.,
Equisetum and ferns) and motile.
⚫ Antherozoids are attracted towards the neck of the archegonium chemotactically by
certain substances like malic acid) present in the mucilaginous substance formed by
the degeneration of neck canal cells and venter canal cell.
⚫ Water is essential for fertilization (zooidogamous). Therefore, Pteridophytes are also
known as amphibians of the plant kingdom.
⚫ Fertilization results in the formation of zygote or oospore, which ultimately develops
into well-developed sporophyte.
⚫ The fertilized egg divides transversely or vertically. Another cross wall forms a
quadrant stage producing stem, leaf, foot and root.
⚫ Plants show heteromorphic alternation of generation. The main plant body is
sporophytic and forms a dominant phase in the life cycle.
⚫ Some of the common examples are Nephrolepis, Selaginella, Equisetum, Pteris, etc.
 Phanerogams:
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms-
(Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons).

Phanerogams: These are seed bearing vascular plants so called as spermatophytes

Phanerogams are further devided into two division viz: Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
Gymnosperms
⚫ The dominant plant body is sporophyte (2n) which may be dioecious or monoecious.
Gametophytes are inconspicuous and endosporic i.e. develop with the spores.
Sporophyte differentiated into — root, stem and leaves.
⚫

⚫Tap root system is exarch and diarch to polyarch. Besides tap root, coralloid roots (in
cycads) and mycorrhizal root (in coniferals) present.
Stem: Erect, generally branched (Cycas is un-branched)
⚫

Leaves- Dimorphic i.e. 2 types, foliage and scale leaves.

⚫

⚫Xylem:Composed of xylem parenchyma and tracheids with bordered pits. Vessels are
absent (exceptin Gnetales).
⚫ Phloem:Composed of sieve cells and phloem parenchyma but companion cells absent.
⚫ Heterospcry:The gymnosperms are heterosporous, means 2 types of spores produced
i.e. haploid microspores and megaspores. Microspores produced within micro-
sporangia while megaspores produce within megasporangia (nucellus) of ovules.
Both types of sporangia are formed on special leaf-like structures called sporophylls
(microsporophylls and megasporophylls).
⚫ Cones or Strobili:Sporophylls are spirally arranged along an axis to form compact
cone or strobili i.e. male or pollen cones and female or seed cones but in Cycas
female cone is loosely arranged called lax.
⚫ Ovules:Naked, sescile, geneiallyorthotropous, and unitegmic or bitegmic (in
Gnetum).
⚫ Pollination is anemophillous i.e. by wind.
⚫ Fertilization is siphonogamous i.e. male gametes carried to female gametes by
means of a pollen tube. Double fertilization, a feature unique to angiosperms, is
absent in gymnosperms, but found in Ephedra. After fertilization, Zygote develops
into embryo and ovules become seed.

⚫ Some of the common examples of gymnosperms are Cycas, Pinus, Ephedra, etc.
 Angiosperms
⚫ The sporophyte which is the dominant plant in the life-cycle is differentiated
into roots, stem and leaves.
⚫ The highest degree of perfection of the vascular system with true vessels in
the xylem and companion cells in the phloem.
⚫ The organisation of the microsporophyll’s (stamens) and megasporophylls
(carpels) into a structure called the flower, which is typical only of the
angiosperms.
⚫ The seed or seeds remain enclosed in the ripened ovary called the fruit.
⚫ The phenomenon of double fertilization or triple fusion is the characteristic
of the angiosperms.
⚫ The endosperm develops after fertilization. It is triploid.
 Summary
⚫ Kingdom Plantae includes all the plants. They are eukaryotic, multicellular and autotrophic
organisms. The plant cell contains a rigid cell wall. Plants have chloroplast and chlorophyll pigment,
which is required for the photosynthesis.
Thallophytes lack a well-differentiated body structure and the plant body is thallus like.
⚫

Thallophyta includes plants with primitive and simple body structure. The plant body is thallus,
⚫

they may be filamentous, colonial, branched or unbranched. Examples include green algae, red algae
and brown algae. Algae are represented by over 7,175 species in 66 genera. Common examples are
Volvox, Fucus, Spirogyra, Chara, Polysiphonia, Ulothrix, etc.
Fungi are achlorophyllous, heterotrophic, eukaryotic and spore bearing organism whose cell wall is
⚫

made up of chitin or cellulose or both, which reproduce by asexual and sexual [Link] of
nutrition is heterotrophic-Heterotrophy - 'other food'.There are about 5100 genra and 250000 species
of fungi. Common examples are Penicillium notatum,yeast,Agaricua,Albugo etc
. A Lichen is an intimate association of a fungus and an algae in which both the organism intertwine
⚫

to form a single thallus. Mycobiont from Ascomycetes are called Ascolichen and if it is from
Basidiomycetes it is called as Basidiolichen. Algal partner is called phycobiont and is from
cynophyceae or [Link] examples are Parmelia,Usnea,Graphis.
⚫ Bryophytes do not have vascular tissues. The plant body has root-like, stem-like and leaf-
like structures. Bryophytes are terrestrial plants but known as “amphibians of the plant
kingdom” as they require water for sexual reproduction. They are present in moist and
shady places. Bryophyta includes mosses, hornworts and liverworts. Some of the common
examples are Riccia,Marchantia, Funaria, Sphagnum, Antheoceros, etc.
⚫ Pteridophytes have a well-differentiated plant body into root, stem and leaves. They have a
vascular system for conduction of water and other substances. Some of the common
examples are Nephrolepis, Selaginella, Equisetum, Pteris, etc.
⚫ Gymnosperms have a well-differentiated plant body and vascular tissues. They bear naked
seeds, i.e. seeds are not enclosed within a fruit. Some of the common examples of
gymnosperms are Cycas, Pinus, Ephedra, etc.
⚫ Angiosperms are seed-bearing vascular plants with well-differentiated plant body. The
seeds of angiosperms are enclosed within the fruits. Angiosperms are widely distributed
and vary greatly in size, e.g. Wolffia is small measuring about 0.1 cm and Eucalyptus trees
are around 100 m tall. Angiosperms are further divided into monocotyledons and
dicotyledons according to the number of cotyledons present in the seeds. Some of the
common examples are mango, rose, tomato, onion, wheat, maize, etc.