BASIC ELECTRONICS
1. INTRODUCTION TO BASIC ELECTRONICS
Electronics is the branch of science and technology that deals with the study and
control of the flow of electrons through materials and devices in order to perform
useful functions such as amplification, switching, rectification, and signal processing.
While electricity focuses mainly on the generation, transmission, and use of electrical
power, electronics focuses on controlling electrical energy to carry information.
Examples of Electronic Devices
Radio
Television
Mobile phones
Computers
Digital clocks
Calculators
Electronics forms the foundation of communication systems, computing systems,
automation, and modern digital technology.
2. SEMICONDUCTORS
2.1 Definition of a Semiconductor
A semiconductor is a material whose electrical conductivity is between that of a
conductor and an insulator. A semiconductor has a small number of charge carriers
(electrons and holes) at room temperature compared to a conductor. Its conductivity
depends on how many electrons are free to move in the conduction band.
Common semiconductor materials include:
Silicon (Si)
Germanium (Ge)
These materials form the backbone of electronic devices.
Effect of Temperature On Semi-Conductor
As the temperature increases, more electrons gain enough energy to jump from the
valence band to the conduction band. This generates more free electrons and
holes, which increases the number of charge carriers available for conduction.
NOTE:
Semiconductors become more conductive at higher temperatures.
Unlike metals, where resistance increases with temperature, in semiconductors,
resistance drops with increasing temperature.
2.2 Energy Band Theory (Exam-Relevant Explanation)
In conductors, electrons move freely.
In insulators, electrons are tightly bound.
In semiconductors, a small amount of energy can free electrons.
This explains why temperature affects semiconductor conductivity. As temperature
increases, conductivity increases.
2.3 Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors are classified into:
2.3.1 Intrinsic Semiconductor
An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor material without any
significant impurities added. Its electrical properties come entirely from the material
itself.
Characteristics:
Equal number of electrons and holes
Low conductivity at room temperature
Conductivity increases with temperature
Example: Pure silicon
2.3.2 Extrinsic Semiconductor
An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor that has been intentionally doped
with impurities to improve its electrical conductivity. Unlike intrinsic
semiconductors, its conduction depends largely on the added impurities.
There are two types:
(a) N-type Semiconductor
Formed by adding pentavalent impurity (e.g., phosphorus).
In an N-type semiconductor, the majority charge carriers are electrons.
These electrons come from the pentavalent impurity atoms (like phosphorus or
arsenic) that are added during doping.
The minority carriers in N-type material are holes.
(b) P-type Semiconductor
Formed by adding trivalent impurity (e.g., boron).
In a P-type semiconductor, the majority charge carriers are holes.
These holes are created when trivalent impurities (like boron or aluminum) are
added to the pure semiconductor.
The minority carriers in P-type material are electrons.
DOPING OF SEMI CONDUCTORS
PROCESS OF DOPING
3. JUNCTION DIODES
3.1 Definition
A junction diode is formed by joining a P-type semiconductor to an N-type
semiconductor. It is called a PN junction diode.
3.2 Structure of a PN Junction
When P-type and N-type materials are joined:
Electrons diffuse across the junction.
Holes diffuse in opposite direction.
A depletion region is formed.
The depletion region acts as a barrier.
3.3 Biasing of a Diode
3.3.1 Forward Bias
Positive terminal connected to P-side.
Negative terminal connected to N-side.
Result:
Depletion region narrows.
Current flows.
3.3.2 Reverse Bias
Positive terminal connected to N-side.
Negative terminal connected to P-side.
Result:
Depletion region widens.
Very little current flows.
WAEC frequently asks:
With the aid of a diagram, explain forward and reverse bias.
3.4 V-I Characteristics of a Diode
In forward bias:
Current increases rapidly after threshold voltage.
In reverse bias:
Very small leakage current flows.
For silicon diode, threshold voltage is approximately 0.7V.
3.5 Special Types of Diodes (Exam Scope)
Zener diode (voltage regulation)
LED (light emission)
Photodiode (light detection)
4. JUNCTION DIODE AS A RECTIFIER
4.1 Meaning of Rectification
Rectification is the process of converting alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC).
This is one of the most common WAEC theory questions.
4.2 Half-Wave Rectifier
Uses one diode.
Operation:
Allows only one half cycle of AC to pass.
Blocks the other half.
Output:
Pulsating DC.
Disadvantages:
Low efficiency
High ripple
4.3 Full-Wave Rectifier
Uses:
Two diodes (center-tapped)
OR
Four diodes (bridge rectifier)
Operation:
Both halves of AC are converted into DC.
Advantages:
Higher efficiency
Less ripple
4.4 Bridge Rectifier
Uses four diodes arranged in bridge form.
Advantages:
No need for center-tapped transformer
Higher output voltage
WAEC commonly asks:
Draw a full-wave rectifier circuit.
State two advantages of full-wave over half-wave.
Sketch input and output waveforms.
5. JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)
5.1 Definition
A transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device used for amplification and
switching.
Terminals:
Emitter (E)
Base (B)
Collector (C)
5.2 Types of Transistors
NPN transistor
PNP transistor
NPN is more commonly used.
5.3 Working Principle
A small base current controls a larger collector current.
Relationship:
Ic = βIb
Where:
Ic = Collector current
Ib = Base current
β = Current gain
5.4 Transistor as an Amplifier
Small input signal becomes large output signal.
Used in:
Audio amplifiers
Radios
Public address systems
5.5 Transistor as a Switch
When base current is zero → OFF
When base current flows → ON
Used in:
Digital circuits
Relays
Switching systems
Draw and label NPN transistor.
Explain transistor action.
Distinguish between PNP and NPN.
State two applications of transistor.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A TRANSISTOR OPERATING AS A SWITCH AND
AS AN AMPLIFIER.
6. LOGIC GATES
6.1 Introduction to Digital Electronics
Digital electronics operates using binary numbers:
0 = LOW
1 = HIGH
Logic gates perform operations on binary inputs.
6.2 Basic Logic Gates
6.2.1 AND Gate
Output is HIGH only when all inputs are HIGH.
Boolean Expression:
Y=A·B
6.2.2 OR Gate
Output is HIGH if any input is HIGH.
Y=A+B
6.2.3 NOT Gate
Inverts input.
Y = A̅
6.3 Universal Gates
NAND Gate
Opposite of AND.
NOR Gate
Opposite of OR.
WAEC frequently asks:
Draw truth table for NAND gate.
Identify universal gate.
Construct AND gate using NAND gates.
6.4 Truth Tables (Very Important for Exams)
Students must be able to:
Draw truth tables
Write Boolean expressions
Interpret logic circuits
Forward and reverse bias
Diode as rectifier
Waveform sketches
Transistor symbol and operation
Amplifier vs switch
Truth tables for logic gates
Identification of universal gates
Boolean expressions
8. PRACTICAL COMPONENT
Students should be able to:
Identify electronic components physically.
Use a multimeter to test diode.
Construct a simple rectifier circuit.
Assemble basic logic gate circuit.
9. SUMMARY
Basic electronics is built on semiconductor technology.
Diodes allow current in one direction and perform rectification.
Transistors amplify and switch signals.
Logic gates form the foundation of digital electronics.
Explain why the resistance of a semiconductor decreases as temperature
increases.