Module : 2

DC Motors
Dr. Nageswara Rao Atyam
Associate Professor
School of Defence and Aerospace Technology
Symbiosis Skills and Professional University

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 1

 Electro-Mechanical
Energy Conversion
• The process of electromechanical energy conversion is
basically reversible in nature, apart from the losses
taking place in the device. The energy cannot be
created or destroyed but it can be transformed from
one form to other. Hence practically
electromechanical energy conversion devices are very
important.

• The Fig.(a) shows the representation of an

electromechanical energy conversion device which
converts mechanical energy to electrical. It is a
generator. While the Fig. (b) shows the representation
of an electromagnetical energy conversion device
which converts electrical energy into mechanical. It is a
motor.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 2

 Construction
of a DC
Machine

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 3

Yoke
• Functions:
• It serves the purpose of outermost cover of the d.c. machine. So that the insulating materials get protected
from harmful atmospheric elements like moisture, dust and various gases like SO2, acidic fumes etc.
• It provides mechanical support to the poles.
• It forms a part of the magnetic circuit. It provides a path of low reluctance for magnetic flux. The low
reluctance path is important to avoid wastage of power to provide same flux. Large current and hence the
power is necessary if the path has high reluctance, to produce the same flux.

• Choice of material: It is prepared by using cast iron because it is cheapest and provides low reluctance path. For
large machines rolled steel, cast steel, silicon steel is used which provides high permeability i.e. low reluctance and
gives good mechanical strength.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 4

Poles • Each pole is divided into two parts namely, I) Pole core and II) Pole shoe.

• Functions of pole core and pole shoe:

• Pole core basically carries a field winding which is necessary to

produce the flux.

• It directs the flux produced through air gap to armature core, to the
next pole.

• Pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core to come across the flux,
which is necessary to produce larger induced e.m.f. To achieve this,
pole shoe has been given a particular shape.

• Choice of material: It is made up of magnetic material like cast iron or cast

steel. As it requires a definite shape and size, laminated construction is
used. The laminations of required size and shape are stamped together to
get a pole which is then bolted to the yoke.
Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU

Field Winding F1 and F2

• The field winding is wound on the pole core with a definite direction.

• Functions:
• To carry current due to which pole core, on which the field winding is placed behaves as an electromagnet, producing necessary
flux. As it helps in producing the magnetic field i.e. exciting the pole as an electromagnet it is called Field winding or Exciting
winding.

• Choice of material: It has to carry current hence obviously made up of some conducting material. So
aluminium or copper is the choice. But field coils are required to take any type of shape and bend about
pole core and copper has good pliability i.e. it can bend easily. So copper is the proper choice. Field winding
is divided into various coils called field coils. These are connected in series with each other and wound in
such a direction around pole cores, such that alternate ‘N’ and ‘S’ poles are formed. The total number of
poles is denoted as P.

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Armature
• The armature is further divided into two parts namely, I) Armature core and II) Armature winding

• Armature core is cylindrical in shape mounted on the shaft. It consists of slots on its periphery
and the air ducts to permit the air flow through armature which serves cooling purpose.

• Functions:

• Armature core provides house for armature winding i.e. armature conductors.

• To provide a path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.

• Choice of material: As it has to provide a low reluctance path to the flux, it is made up of
magnetic material like cast iron or cast steel. It is made up of laminated construction to keep
eddy current loss as low as possible. A single circular lamination used for the construction of the
armature core.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 7

 Con..
• Armature winding is nothing but the interconnection of the
armature conductors, placed in the slots provided on the
armature core periphery. When the armature is rotated, in
case of generator, magnetic flux gets cut by armature
conductors and e.m.f. gets induced in them.

• Functions:

• Generation of e.m.f. takes place in the armature winding

in case of generators.

• To carry the current supplied in case of d.c. motors.

• To do the useful work in the external circuit.

• b) Choice of material: As armature winding carries entire

current which depends on external load, it has to be made up
of conducting material, which is copper

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 8

Commutator • The basic nature of e.m.f. induced in the armature conductors is alternating.
This needs rectification in case of d.c. generator, which is possible by a
device called commutator.

• Functions:

• To facilitate the collection of current from the armature conductors.

• To convert internally developed alternating e.m.f. to unidirectional

(d.c.) e.m.f.

• To produce unidirectional torque in case of motors.

• Choice of material: As it collects current from armature, it is also made up of

copper segments. It is cylindrical in shape and is made up of wedge shaped
segments of hard drawn, high conductivity copper. These segments are
insulated from each other by thin layer of mica. Each commutator segment
is connected to the armature conductor by means of copper lug or strip.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 9

 • Brushes and Brush Gear Brushes are stationary and
resting on the surface of the commutator.
• Function: To collect current from commutator
Con… and make it available to the stationary external
circuit.
• Choice of material: Brushes are normally made
up of soft material like carbon. To avoid wear
and tear of commutator, the brushes are made
up of soft material like carbon.

• Bearings Ball-bearings are usually used as they are

more reliable. For heavy duty machines, roller
bearings are preferred.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 10

 Types of Armature
Winding
• According to way of connecting the conductors, the armature winding has
two types, Lap and Wave. In lap type, the connections overlap each other as
the winding proceeds. Due to the this, number of parallel paths in which
conductors are divided is “P”. Large number of parallel paths indicate high
current capacity of machine hence lap winding is preferred for high current
rating generators.

A=P= Number of parallel paths for lap

• In wave type, the winding travels ahead avoiding the overlapping in a

progressive fashion. Due to this, the armature conductors always get divided
into two parallel paths, irrespective of number of poles.

A=2= Number of parallel paths for wave

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 11

 EMF Equation of Generator & Motor

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 12

 13

DC Motor’s
Principle of operation, back emf and torque equations, types of
motors, characteristics (shunt and series only), and applications.
Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU

Principle of Operation of a D.C. Machine as a Motor.

• The principle of operation of a d.c. motor can be stated in a single statement as ‘when a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field; it experiences a mechanical force’.

• In a practical d.c. motor, field winding produces a required magnetic field while armature
conductors play a role of a current carrying conductors and hence armature conductors
experience a force.

• Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field as shown in the Fig. (a). Now this
conductor is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a current in a particular direction.
Consider that it carries a current away from an observer as shown in the Fig (b).

• Any current carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field around it, hence this conductor
also produces its own flux, around. The direction of this flux can be determined by right hand
thumb rule.

• For direction of current considered, the direction of flux around a conductor is clockwise. For
simplicity of understanding, the main flux produced by the permanent magnet is not shown in
the Fig (b).

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 Con… • Now there are two fluxes present, The flux produced by the permanent magnet
called main flux and the flux produced by the current carrying conductor.

• From this, it is clear that on one side of the conductor, both the fluxes are in the
same direction. In this case, on the left of the conductor there is gathering of the
flux lines as two fluxes help each other. As against this, on the right of the
conductor, the two fluxes are in opposite direction and hence try to cancel each
other.

• Due to this, the density of the flux lines in this area gets weakened. So on the left,
there exists high flux density area while on the right of the conductor there exists
low flux density area as shown in the Fig (b). This flux distribution around the
conductor acts like a stretched rubber band under tension.

• This exerts a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from high flux density
area towards low flux density area, i.e. from left to right for the case considered
as shown in the Fig.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 15

 Con…
In the practical d.c. motor, the permanent magnet is replaced by a field winding which produces the required flux called main
flux and all the armature conductors, mounted on the periphery of the armature drum, get subjected to the mechanical force.

Due to this, overall armature experiences a twisting force called

B = Flux density due to the flux produced by the field winding.
torque and armature of the motor starts rotating. The
l = Active length of the conductor.
magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor in a motor
I = Magnitude of the current passing through the conductor.
is given by, F= B l I Newtons (N)

The direction of such force i.e. the direction of rotation of a motor can be determined by Fleming's left hand rule. To reverse
the direction of rotation of a d.c. motor, either direction of main field produced by the field winding is reversed or direction of
the current passing through the armature is reversed.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 16

 Concept of Back EMF
• It is seen in the generating action, that when a conductor cuts the lines of flux, e.m.f. gets induced in the conductor. In a
d.c. motor, after a motoring action, armature starts rotating and armature conductors cut the main flux. Thus, there
exists a generating action.

• There is an induced e.m.f. in the rotating armature conductors according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
This induced e.m.f. in the armature always acts in the opposite direction of the supply voltage.

• This is according to the Lenz's law which states that the direction of the induced e.m.f. is always, so as to oppose the
cause producing it. In a d.c. motor, electrical input i.e. the supply voltage is the cause and hence this induced e.m.f.
opposes the supply voltage.

• This e.m.f. tries to set up a current through the armature which is in the opposite direction to that, which supply voltage is
forcing through the conductor.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 17

Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU

Con…
• So as this e.m.f. always opposes the supply voltage, it is called
back e.m.f. and denoted as Eb.

• Though it is denoted as Eb, basically it gets generated by the

generating action which we have seen earlier in case of
generators. So its magnitude can be determined by the e.m.f.
equation which is derived earlier.

• So, Eb = ∅PNZ/60 A volts where all symbols carry the same

meaning as seen earlier in case of generators. This e.m.f. is
shown schematically in the Fig (a).

• So if V is supply voltage in volts and Ra is the value of the

armature resistance, the equivalent electric circuit can be
shown as in the Fig.

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 • In case of d.c. motor, supply voltage V has to overcome back
e.m.f. Eb which is opposing V and also various drops as
armature resistance drop Ia Ra, brush drop etc.

• Hence the voltage equation of a d.c. motor can be written

Voltage as, V = Eb + Ia Ra + brush drop. The back e.m.f. is always less

Equation of a than supply voltage (Eb < V). But, Ra is very small hence
under normal running conditions, the difference between
D.C. Motor back e.m.f. and supply voltage is very small.

• The net voltage across the armature is the difference

between the supply voltage and back e.m.f. which decides
the armature current. Hence from the voltage equation we
can write, Ia = V – Eb / Ra

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 19

• Due to the presence of back e.m.f. the d.c. motor becomes a regulating machine i.e. motor
adjusts itself to draw the armature current just enough to satisfy the load demand. The
basic principle of this fact is that the back e.m.f. is proportional to speed, Eb 𝛼 N.

• When load is suddenly put on to the motor, motor tries to slow down. So speed of the
motor reduces due to which back e.m.f. also decreases. So the net voltage across the
armature (V – Eb) increases and motor draws more armature current.
Back EMF as a
Self -
• Due to the increased armature current, force experienced by the conductors and hence the
torque on the armature increases. The increase in the torque is just sufficient to satisfy
increased load demand.

• When load on the motor is decreased, the speed of the motor tries to increase. Hence back Regulating
e.m.f. increases. This causes (V – Eb) to reduce which eventually reduces the current drawn

Mechanism
by the armature. The motor speed stops increasing when the armature current is just
enough to produce the less torque required by the new load.

• So back e.m.f. regulates the flow of armature current and it automatically alters the
armature current to meet the load requirement. This is the practical significance of the
back [Link]. At start the speed N of the motor is zero hence the back e.m.f. is also zero.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 20

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 21
 Torque
Equation of
a DC Motor

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Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU

2nd Way of
obtaining
Torque
Equation

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 Power
Equation of
DC Motor

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 24

Separately Excited DC
Motor
• As the name signifies, the field coils or field windings are
energised by a separate DC source

• Armature Current = Ia = Line Current, IL= I (Say)

• Back EMF Developed = Eb = V – IaRa

• Power Drawn from the supply mains = P = VI

• Mechanical Power Developed, Pm = Power Input to Armature –

Power lost in the armature = V I – I2Ra = I (V – IaRa ) = EbI

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 25

• In this type, the field winding is connected across the armature winding and the
combination is connected across the supply, Let Rsh be the resistance of shunt field
Dc Shunt Motor
winding and Ra be the resistance of armature winding. The value of Ra is very small
while Rsh is quite large. Hence shunt field winding has more number of turns with less
cross-sectional area. The voltage across armature and field winding is same equal to the
supply voltage V. The total current drawn from the supply is denoted as line current IL.

IL = Ia + Ish and Ish = V / Rsh and V = Eb + Ia Ra + Vbrush

• Now flux produced by the field winding is proportional to the current passing through it
i.e. ∅ ∝ Ish

• As long as supply voltage is constant, which is generally so in practice, the flux produced
is constant. Hence d.c. shunt motor is called constant flux motor.

• Power Drawn from the supply mains = P = VI

• Mechanical Power Developed, Pm = Power Input to Armature – Power lost in the

armature

Pm = V IL – V Ish - Ia2Ra = V(IL – Ish - Ia2Ra ) = V(Ia- Ia2Ra ) = Ia (V – IaRa ) = EbIa

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 26

 DC Series Motor
• In this type of motor, the series field winding is connected in series with the
armature and the supply, Let Rse be the resistance of the series field winding then
the value of Rse is very small and it is made of small number of turns having large
cross-section area.

• Let IL be the total current drawn from the supply. So,

IL = Ise = Ia and V= Eb + Ia Ra + Ise Rse + Vbrush (or) V =Eb + Ia (Ra + Rse)+Vbrush

• Supply voltage has to overcome the drop across series field winding in addition to
Eb and drop across armature winding. In series motor, entire armature current is
passing through the series field winding. So flux produced is proportional to the
armature current. ∅ ∝ Ise ∝ Ia for series motor

• Power Drawn from the supply mains = P = VI

• Mechanical Power Developed, Pm = Power Input to Armature – Power lost in the

armature

Pm = V I – I2(Ra + Rse) = I (V – I(Ra + Rse )) = Eb I

27 06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU

Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU

Long Shunt Compound Motor

• In this type, the shunt field winding is connected across the
combination of armature and the series field winding. Let Rse be the
resistance of series field and Rsh be the resistance of shunt field
winding.

• The total current drawn from supply is IL.

So, IL = Ise + Ish But Ise = Ia i.e. IL = Ia + Ish and Ish = V / Rsh and

V = Eb + IaRa + IseRse + Vbrush but as Ise = Ia,

V = Eb + Ia (Ra + Rse)+Vbrush

• Power Drawn from the supply mains = P = VI

• Mechanical Power Developed, Pm = Eb Ia

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Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU

Short Shunt
• In this type, the shunt field is connected purely in parallel with armature and the series
field is connected in series with this combination

Compound Motor • The entire line current is passing through the series field winding. IL = Ise and IL = Ia + Ish

• Now the drop across the shunt field winding is to be calculated from the voltage
equation.

So, V = Eb + Ise Rse + IaRa + Vbrush but Ise = IL V = Eb + IL Rse + Ia Ra + Vbrush

• Drop across shunt field winding is,

V – IL Rse = Eb + Ia Ra + Vbrush

Ish = V – IL Rse / Rsh = Eb + Ia Ra + Vbrush / Rsh

• A long shunt compound motor can be of cumulative or differential type. Similarly short
shunt compound motor can be cumulative or differential type.

• Power Drawn from the supply mains = P = VI

• Mechanical Power Developed, Pm = Eb Ia

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 DC Motor Characteristics

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 30

DC Shunt Motor : Torque –
Armature Char..
• For a constant values of Rsh and supply voltage V,
Ish is also constant and hence flux is also constant.
Ta ∝ Ia The equation represents a straight line,
passing through the origin, as shown in the Fig.

• Torque increases linearly with armature current. So

as load increases, armature current increases,
increasing the torque developed linearly.

• On no load Tsh = 0 but armature torque is present

which is just enough to overcome stray losses
shown as Ta0. The current required is Ia0 on no load
to produce Ta0 and hence Tsh graph has an intercept
of Ia0 on the current axis.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 31

 DC Shunt Motor : Speed – Armature Char..
• From the speed equation we get, N ∝ V – Ia Ra as is
constant. So as load increases, the armature current
increases and hence drop IaRa also increases. Hence
for constant supply voltage, V – IaRadecreases and
hence speed reduces.

• But as Ra is very small, for change in Ia from no load

to full load, drop Ia Ra is very small and hence drop
in speed is also not significant from no load to full
load. But for all practical purposes these type of
motors are considered to be a constant speed
motors.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 32

DC Shunt Motor : Speed – Torque Char..
• These characteristics can be derived from
the above two characteristics.

• This graph is similar to speed-armature

current characteristics as torque is
proportional to the armature current.

• This curve shows that the speed almost

remains constant though torque changes
from no load to full load conditions.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 33

 DC Series Motor :
Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU

Torque – Armature Char..

• For the series motor the series field winding is carrying the entire
armature current hence, Ta ∝ Ia ∝ Ia2

• Thus, torque in case of series motor is proportional to the square of the

armature current. This relation is parabolic As load increases, armature
current increases and torque produced increases proportional to the
square of the armature current up to a certain limit.

• As the entire Ia passes through the series field, there is a property of an

electromagnet called saturation, may occur.

• Saturation means though the current through the winding increases, the
flux produced remains constant. Hence after saturation the characteristics
take the shape of straight line as flux becomes constant, as shown.

• The difference between Ta and Tsh is loss torque Tf as shown in the Fig.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU

• From the speed equation we get, N ∝ Eb / ∅ ∝ V - IaRa -

DC Series Motor : Ia Rse / Ia as ∅ ∝ Ia in case of series motor.

• The values of Ra and Rse are so small that the effect of

Speed – Armature Char.. change in Ia on speed overrides the effect of change in V
– Ia Ra – Ia Rse on the speed.

• Hence in the speed equation, Eb ≅ V and can be

assumed constant.

• So, speed equation reduces to, N ∝ 1/ Ia

• So, speed - armature current characteristics is

rectangular hyperbola

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 DC Series Motor :
Speed – Torque Char..
• In case of series motors, T ∝ Ia2 and N ∝ 1 / Ia

• Hence we can write, N ∝ 1 / √T

• Thus as torque increases when load increases, the

speed decreases.

• On no load, torque is very less and hence speed

increases to dangerously high value.

• Thus the nature of the speed - torque

characteristics is similar to the nature of the
speed - armature current characteristics.
 Characteristics of Compound Motor

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 37

Con…
• Compound motor characteristics basically depends on the fact whether the motor is
cumulatively compound or differential compound. All the characteristics of the
compound motor are the combination of the shunt and series characteristic.
• Cumulative compound motor is capable of developing large amount of torque at low
speeds just like series motor. However it is not having a disadvantage of series motor
even at light or no load. The shunt field winding produces the definite flux and series flux
helps the shunt field flux to increase the total flux level.
• So cumulative compound motor can run at a reasonable speed and will not run with
dangerously high speed like series motor, on light or no load condition.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 38

Con…
• In differential compound motor, as two fluxes oppose each other, the resultant flux decreases as
load increases, thus the machine runs at a higher speed with increase in the load.

• This property is dangerous as on full load, the motor may try to run with dangerously high speed.
So differential compound motor is generally not used in practice.

• The exact shape of these characteristics depends on the relative contribution of series and shunt
field windings. If the shunt field winding is more dominant then the characteristics take the shape
of the shunt motor characteristics.

• While if the series field winding is more dominant then the characteristics take the shape of the
series characteristics.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 39

 • It is a universal truth that the output of a DC machine (DC motor or DC
generator) is always less than the input because there are some losses
due to different factors in the DC machines. The losses in a DC motor are
the same as losses in a DC generator except the power flow.

• As the same DC machine can be used for different purposes e.g. DC motor
converts the electrical power into mechanical power while the DC

Losses in a generator converts the mechanical power into electrical power.

DC Motor
• It is a fact that the input power to the motor input in VI – Watts are not
fully converted into mechanical power in BHP x 746 – Watts because
some losses (copper, iron and rotational or friction losses) occur during
the power conversion. These losses are known as motor losses which
dissipate in the form of heat.

• If the losses in a motor increases, it will decrease the motor’s efficiency. If

more losses occur, it may lead to burning the motor at all. A good DC
motor is that with fewer amounts of losses and better efficiency.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 40

 Con…

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Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU

Armature Copper Loss

• When current flows through the armature winding (conductors), some losses occur due to
the resistance of armature winding conductors. These losses are 30-40% of the total full load
losses which can be calculated as Ia2Ra … Watts

Field Copper Loss

• When current flows through the shunt field and series field, (in case of shunt and series

Electrical motor and generator respectively) some losses occur due to the resistance of these fields
winding. Additionally, the losses occur due to the winding resistance when a current flow in

Losses : the interpole winding conductors is known as interpole winding losses. These losses are 20-
30% of the total full load losses which can be calculated as:

Copper Loss • Shunt Field Losses = Ish2Rsh … Watts ; Series Field Losses = Ise2Rse … Watts; Interpole Winding
Losses = Ia2R2 … Watts

Brush Contact Resistance Loss

• As the name suggests, these losses occur due to the brush resistance during the surface
mechanism operation of the brush and commutator. Generally, these losses are categorized in
the armature losses.

• PBrush = VDB Ia

• Hence, the total copper loss in a DC motor = Ia2Ra + Ish2Rsh + Ise2Rse

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Magnetic Losses (Iron Core Loss)
• Magnetic losses are known as iron core losses (which are 30-40% of the full load losses) and have additional types as follows.
• Hysteresis Loss
• The losses due to the reversal of magnetism in the armature core are known as hysteresis losses. Each part of the rotational
core passes below the “S” and “N” pole again and again which changes the polarity of “S” and “N” respectively. Due to these
polarity changes, hysteresis losses occur which depends on flux and speed of motor. These losses can be determined using
the following formula.
• Hysteresis Losses = WHys ∝ BMax1.6 fV ; Where: WHys = Hysteresis Losses; BMax = Maximum flux density; f = Frequency; V =
Volume of the core
• Eddy Current Loss
• When the armature core rotates in the magnetic field, an EMF is induced in it according to the law’s of electromagnetic
induction. As the resistance of the core is very low (where the core area is noticeably large) hence, a huge amount of current
flows in it which causes more losses. The power loss due to eddy current is known as eddy current losses.
• To reduce the eddy current loss (this power dissipation appears in the form of heat), a laminated (each core lamination is
laminated from each other) core is used instead of solid core. The eddy current loss can’t be fully eliminated, but minimize
using the laminated core. These losses can be calculated using the following formula.
• Eddy Current Losses = WEddy ∝ BMax2f2t2V; Where: WEddy = Eddy Current Losses; BMax = Maximum flux density; f = Frequency; t
= Width of limitation; V = Volume of the core

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 43

 Mechanical Losses
Mechanical losses are also known as friction losses or rotational losses. These losses can be
classified as follows.

These losses occur due to the friction between the surfaces of the

Friction Losses brush to commutator and bearings to the shaft connected to the
armature (shaft).

Windage losses occur when air opposes the rotation of the armature.

Windage Losses This is because the rotating armature needs to be pushed against the
wind to rotate in the defined direction.

Frictional losses (mechanical losses) and iron losses (magnetic losses)

Stray Losses are known as stray losses.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 44

Efficiency
of DC
Motor

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 45

Con…
• The ratio between input and output of a machine is defined as the efficiency of machine. It is
expressed in percentage (%) and denoted by the greek symbol “η”.
• Efficiency = η = (Output ÷ Input) × 100

• There are some losses in each machine, this way, the output is always less than the input. e.g.
• Output = Input – Losses
• Input = Output + Losses

• Therefore, the efficiency can also be determined as follows:

• Efficiency = η = (Input – Losses) ÷ Input)) × 100
• Efficiency = η = (Output ÷ (Output + Losses)) × 100

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 46

What is a Three
Point Stater
A Three-Point starter consists of a tapped
resistor which is sealed in a ventilated box.
The main function of the starter is to reduce
the flowing current in the armature circuit in
the starting period. It is mainly used to
control the starting current without speed
control of DC motors.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 47

Construction
• A Three-Point starter consists of a starting resistance divided into multiple parts that are connected in series with the shunt field winding.
Each part is connected to a brass stud. It also consists of two protective devices; no-volt release and over-load release. This starter has three
terminals; L, F, and A. Therefore, this starter is known as a Three-Point starter.

• Terminal A is connected to one terminal of armature winding and the last stud (On position) of the starting resistance. Terminal L is
connected to the positive supply through the main switch. Hence, it connects the supply to the series resistance via overload release.

• One end of the arm has a spiral spring S. The spring is used to hold the arm OFF position during standstill conditions. Also, during the
running condition, if the supply is failed, this spring brings the arm to the OFF position due to the spiral torque of the spring. A soft iron
keeper is placed at the center of the arm. During the normal running condition, the soft iron keeper is attracted to the no-volt release or
holding coil.

• The last brass stud is connected to terminal F and when the arm is connected to this point the additional resistance is zero. One terminal of
shunt field winding is connected to terminal F. The negative terminal of supply is connected with the remaining terminals of the armature
and shunt field winding of the DC shunt motor.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 48

Working of Three Point Starter
• Due to the spiral force of the spring, the starter arm is in the OFF position when the motor is in
stand-still condition. The DC supply is given to the motor by closing the main switch. After that,
the starter arm is moved to the first stud. In this condition, the entire resistance of starting
resistor is connected in series with the armature winding, and the field winding is connected
directly with the supply.

• Now, the motor starts to run, and the holding coil starts to energize. As the starting arm moves
further, the resistance is cut from the circuit. When the arm reaches to ON position, the holding
coil energies enough to hold the soft iron keeper. The arm should not be stopped or held for a
long time in an intermediate position. Otherwise, the starting resistance may burn out.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 49

 Function of No Volt Release
• When the motor reaches the normal speed and the arm is reached the ON position, the entire starting resistance is cut off from the circuit.
Now in running condition, if the supply is interrupted or disconnected, the starting arm remains at the ON position. And when the supply is
restored, there is no back EMF in the circuit and armature winding is connected directly across the main supply.

• Therefore, in this condition, an excessive amount of current starts flowing through the armature winding and it may damage. So, to avoid
this situation no-volt release is used in a circuit to pull back the arm to the OFF position.

• The no-release coil consists of an electromagnet that is connected in series with the shunt field winding. When the supply is ON, it attracts
the soft iron keeper. But if the supply fails or interrupted, the electromagnet is demagnetized and releases a soft iron keeper. Due to the
spiral force of the spring, the arm is pulled back to the OFF position and disconnects the main supply.

• Also, another function of no-volt release is that it prevents open-circuit in shunt field winding. Because the no-volt release is connected in
series with the shunt field winding. If the shunt filed winding is open-circuited, the current flowing through the no-volt release is zero. And it
demagnetizes the coil and releases the arm to the OFF position.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 50

Function of Over Load Release
• Another protective device overload release is connected in series with the motor to avoid the overload condition.
As this device is connected in series with the motor, the current flows through the motor are the same current that
flows through the overload release.

• The overload release consists of a coil. In normal conditions, the current flows through this coil are not enough for
the pull armature in an upward direction. But, in an overload condition, an excess amount of current will flow
through the motor and coil of overload release. And this high amount of current is sufficient to pull the armature in
an upward direction.

• So, as the armature is pulled up, it short-circuited the no-volt release and resulted to demagnetize the no-volt
release coil. So, the soft iron keeper detached from the no-volt release, and the arm is pulled back to the OFF
position. Hence, in overload conditions, the motor will disconnect from the supply with the help of overload
release.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 51

 • The speed of the DC motor is controlled by controlling resistance connected in
series with field winding. The speed of the motor is inversely proportional to the
flux N ∝ 1/ϕ. Hence, the motor speed can be increased by decreasing flux. And the
flux can be decreased by decreasing the field current. The field current is controlled
by field resistance.

Disadvantages
• In a Three-Point starter, the field winding is connected in series with the no-volt
coil. Therefore, the current that passes through the field winding is the same as the

of Three point current that passes through the no-volt coil. For speed control purposes, the field
current is decreased, and also, the current that passes through the no-volt coil is

Starter decreased.

• During the normal running condition, the no-volt coil produces electromagnetic pull
force to attract the soft-iron keeper against the spring force. But in this condition,
the current is reduced and it results in the spring force being higher than the
electromagnetic pull. Hence, due to spring tension, the arm is pulled back to the
OFF position and the supply is disconnected from the motor. So, a Three-Point
starter is not suitable for variable speed control of a DC motor.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 52

 Four Point Starter
• The construction and working principle of a Four-Point
starter is almost similar to the working of a three-point
starter. It is used to limit starting current and also used as
a speed control and protective device.

• Similar to a three-point starter, this starter also consists

of a No-volt coil (NVC) and an overload trip coil (OTC).

• As the name suggests, a Four-Point starter consists of

four terminals named L, N, F, and A. The connection
diagram of the Four-Point starter is shown in the figure
below.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 53

Con…
• One end of the armature winding terminal is connected to point A and one end of the shunt field
winding is connected to point F. Remaining terminals of the armature winding and field winding
are connected with the negative terminal of the DC supply.

• No-volt trip coil (NVC) and a current limiting resistance (R) is connected in series with the line
terminal of the DC supply. One end (ON) of the handle is connected to the remaining terminal of
the NVC. And the second terminal of the handle (OFF) is connected with terminal L through an
overload trip coil (OLC).

• The handle is hinged with spring and due to spiral force, it remains at the OFF position when the
motor is in a standstill condition. During starting period of the motor, the handle moves manually
against the spiral force to the OFF to ON position.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 54

Working of Four point Starter
• The working principle of a Four-Point starter is almost similar to the working principle of a three-point
starter. In standstill condition, the handle arm is placed at the OFF position. When the DC supply is five
to the motor and the arm is moved to the first stud of starting resistance, the current divides into three
branches;
• Armature winding and starting resistance
• Shunt field winding
• No-volt release coil and protective resistance

• Here, the no-volt release coil is a separate circuit from shunt field winding. Hence, the current that
passes through the shunt field winding is separate from the current that passes through the no-volt
release coil. Therefore, the electromagnetic pull generated by a no-volt coil is always sufficient to
attract an iron keeper.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 55

Con…
• A rheostat is connected in series with the field winding. This field rheostat is used to obtain the speed of the motor above
normal speed. Here, we need to assure that;

• The field winding is closed before starting the motor,

• The field rheostat connected in series with the shunt winding is set at zero resistance position,

• And the starting resistance in series with the armature winding is at maximum value.

• Similar to a three-point starter, if in case the supply is failed, the current passes through the no-volt coil are zero and the
arm is pulled back to the OFF position. And in case of overload, the overload coil generates enough MMF to pull plunger P
and short the terminals of the No-volt coil.

• This makes zero current in the no-volt coil and the arm is pulled back to the OFF position.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 56

Disadvantages
The only disadvantage of a Four-Point starter is that it does not protect against failure or open circuits in the
field winding. The field failure condition is rare in practice but it is a very dangerous condition.

Because if the field winding is open-circuited due to any reason, the only flux available is due to residual flux.
And the residual flux is very small. And we know that the speed of the motor is inversely proportional to the
flux N ∝ 1/ϕ.

So, the motor runs at dangerously high speed. This protection is considered in a three-point starter.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 57

Speed Control
of DC Shunt
Motor : Flux
Control
 Con…

11/6/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 59

 Armature
Voltage Control
Method or
Rheostatic
Control
Potential Divider Control

11/6/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 61

Applied
Voltage
Control
General Steps
to solve
problems on
speed control
 Speed Control of DC Series Motor : Flux
Control

11/6/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 64

Armature
Divertor
Method
 Tapped Field Method

11/6/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 66

 Series
Parallel
Connection
of Field
 Rheostatic Control

11/6/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 68

Applied
Voltage
Control
 • A 4 pole, d.c. motor has lap connected armature winding. The
flux per pole is 30 mWb. The number of armature conductors
is 250. When connected to 230 V d.c. supply it draws an
armature current of 40 A. Calculate the back e.m.f. and the

Numerical on speed with which motor is running. Assume armature

resistance is 0.6 ohms
Back EMF – • Calculate the voltage induced in the armature winding of a 4-
DC Motor pole, lap wound d.c. machine having 728 active conductors
and running at 1800 r.p.m. The flux per pole is 30 mWb. If the
armature is designed to carry a maximum line current of 100
A, what is the maximum electromagnetic power developed by
the armature?

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 70

 • A 4 pole d.c. motor takes a 50 A armature current.
The armature has lap connected 480 conductors.
The flux per pole is 20 m Wb. Calculate the gross

Numerical on torque developed by the armature of the motor.

torque • A 4 pole, lap wound d.c. motor has 540 conductors.

Its speed is found to be 1000 r.p.m. when it is made
Equation to run light. The flux per pole is 25 mWb. It is
connected to 230 V d.c. supply. The armature
resistance is 0.8 ohms. Calculate i) Induced e.m.f. ii)
Armature current iii) Stray losses iv) Lost torque

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 71

 • A 4 pole, 250 V, d.c. series motor has a wave connected armature
with 200 conductors. The flux per pole is 25 mWb when motor is
drawing 60 A from the supply. Armature resistance is 0.15 ohms
while series field winding resistance is 0.2 ohms. Calculate the
speed under this condition.

Numerical on • A 250 V, d.c. shunt motor takes a line current of 20 A. Resistance

Classification of shunt field winding is 200 ohms and resistance of the

armature is 0.3 ohms. Find the armature current and the back
of Motors e.m.f.

• A d.c. shunt machine connected to 230 volts supply has

resistance of armature as 0.115 ohms and of field winding as 115
ohms. Find the ratio of the speed as a generator to the speed as
a motor with the line current in each case being 100 amperes.

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 72

 • A 4 pole, 220 V, lap connected, D.C. shunt motor has 36 slots, each slot
containing 16 conductors. It draws a current of 40 A from the supply. The field
resistance and armature resistance are 110 ohms, 0.1 ohms respectively. The
motor develops an output power of 6 kW. The flux per pole is 40 mWb.
Calculate, a) The speed b) The torque developed by the armature and c) The
shaft torque. (Ans.: 563.02 r.p.m., 139.21 Nm, 101.73 Nm)

• A 4 pole, 250 V series motor has wave connected armature with 1254

Con… conductors. The flux per pole is 22 mWb when the motor is taking 50 A. The
armature and series field coil resistance are respectively 0.3 ohm and 0.2 ohm.
Calculate the speed and torque of the motor and also the power developed in
watts. (Ans.: 244.67 r.p.m., 438.65 Nm, 11.25 kW).

• A 4 pole DC shunt motor takes 22 A from 220 V supply. The armature and field
resistances are respectively 0.5 ohm and 100 ohm respectively. The armature
is lap connected with 300 conductors. If the flux per pole is 20 mWb, calculate
the speed and gross torque. (Ans.: 2101 r.p.m., 18.89 Nm)

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 73

Applications of DC Motors

Shunt Motor

Speed is fairly constant and medium starting torque

Blowers and Fans, Centrifugal and reciprocating Pumps, Lathe

Machines, Machine Tools, Milling Machines and Drilling Machines

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 74

Con…

Cranes, Hoists,
High Starting Torque. No Elevators, Trolleys,

DC Series Motor load condition is dangerous, Conveyers, Electric

Variable speed Locomotives and
Electric Traction

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 75

 Rolling Mills, Punches,
Shears, Heavy Planers,
Cumulative Compound Elevators

High Starting Torque.

No load Condition is
Not allowed.

Con…
Con…
Differential
Compound

Speed Increases
as load Increases

Not suitable for

any practical
application

06/11/25 Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU 77

 7
8

Thank You

Dr. Nageswara Rao, School of [Link], SSPU

06/11/25