TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

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 Contents
Introductory Differential Calculus 2
3.0 Introduction ........................................................................... 2
3.1 Limits of Functions ................................................................. 3
3.1.1 Definition of a Limit ...................................................... 3
3.1.2 Existence of a limit ....................................................... 5
3.1.3 Properties of Limits .................................................... 5
3.1.4 Continuity and discontinuity of functions ..................... 6
3.2 Derivative of a function ........................................................... 7
3.2.1 Definition of a derivative ............................................... 7
3.2.2 Rate of change.............................................................. 7
3.2.4 Gradient of function at a point using the first principle
........................................................................................... 10
3.2.5 Differentiation of polynomials ..................................... 11
3.2.6 Rules of differentiation ............................................... 13
The Second differential coefficient. ...................................... 16
3.2.7 Implicit differentiation of Functions ............................ 17
3.3 Stationary points .................................................................. 20
3.3.1 Definition ................................................................... 20
3.3.2 Nature of stationary points ......................................... 21
Using the value of the function ............................................ 23
The first derivative test ........................................................ 24
The second derivative test ................................................... 26
3.3.3 Solving Practical Problems ......................................... 28
3.4 Asymptotes of functions ................................................ 32

REFERENCES
1. MUKUBA UNIVERSITY MODULES
2. UNZA MODULES
3. PURE AND APPLIED ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS
4. UNDERSTANDING PURE MATHEMATICS
Introductory Differential
Calculus
3.0 Introduction
Mathematics has several branches. Calculus is one of such branches that will be the
focus of this unit.
Calculus is broadly divided in two parts, differential calculus and integral
calculus.
In this unit we shall deal with differential calculus and related concepts.

During and upon completion of this unit you will be able

to:
i. Understand the concept of limits
ii. Appreciate basic Differentiation rules
Outcomes iii. Differentiate polynomial functions
iv. Apply the concept of differentiation in
a. Establishing gradients of curves
b. determining stationary points
v. identify asymptotes

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3.1 Limits of Functions
3.1.1 Definition of a Limit
Recall A when we looked at functions that they display different types of
characteristics and are defined over certain domains. Some functions are not
defined over given points in the domain. We now explore more properties of
functions.
Consider this case
Consider the linear function f ( x)  1  4 x which is obviously one-valued.
We want to access the behaviour of f ( x)  1  4 x as the as x approaches say 2.
We will use value close to 2 from either direction. Picking values as close to 2 as
possible
Now complete the following table;

x 1 1.9 1.99 1.9999 2.0 2.000 2.00 2.0

9 9 99 01 1 1

f(x) 5 9
If you did the correct computations, you should have found the following values
8.96, 8.996, 8.999996, 9.00004, 9.004, and 9.04 respectively should have been found.
What is your observation over the range and the domain?
You should have noticed that as x approaches the value 2, from below or
above, the values gets closer and closer to the value 9 and is not above 9.
In a diagram form we could sketch it as shown below

Figure 3.1 Limit of a function

Thus it is seen that, as x approaches the value of 2, from above or below,

f ( x)  1  4 x approaches the value 9, and this value is said to be the limit, or
limiting value of the function f (x) when x tends to the value 2.

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Symbolically this can be written as, lim f ( x)  9
x 2

Read as, ‘the limit of f(x) as x approaches 2 is 9’.

What follows is not the precise definition but what would be referred to as a
working definition.

The limit of the function f(x) is L as x approaches a provided we can make

f(x) as close to L as we want for all x sufficiently close to a form both sides,
without actually letting x be a.
limf (x)L
xa

Let us look at examples of how to establish the limits of functions over a

certain value.
Example 3.1
Evaluate 
lim 4 x  x 2
x2

By the definition, we test the behaviour of the limit when as close to 2 as
possible, thereby letting x =2 is the starting point as the ultimate is to access
its value as close as possible.
 
lim 4 x  x 2  4(2)  22  4
x2

Activity 3.1 [Self marked]

Equally the following can be derived using this approach. Can you evaluate
the following:
(2x 5)
lim (23x)
lim
x3
a) x5
b)
(2x 5)
lim
c) x1

 4 
lim  (2x2 5)
lim
d) 
x5 1-2x
 e) x5

There as well some cases that would not easily allow us to get the limits
unless with special approaches. For instance
Look at these two cases.
 x 2  16   4 x 2  5x 
lim   and lim  
x 1  3 x 2 
x4
 x4   
What would you say about the limits at the points in

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 question?
In the first limit if we plugged in x =4 we would get 0 and in the second limit
0

if we “plugged” in infinity we would get 



Both of these are called indeterminate forms. In order for us to get the
limits we need to simplify the expressions before we proceed.
Also note that 0 a,
or which means that each time we get such values then
0 0
the limits are not real values, therefore they do not exist.
For the two limits above we would work them by first simplifying as
follows;
 x 2  16   ( x  4)( x  4)   x  4
lim    lim    lim  8
x 4
 x  4  x 4
 ( x  4 )  x 4
 1 

  5   5 
 4 x 2  5x   x 4   
2
 4 
Also lim   =   x 
  x 4
x 1  3 x  lim lim
 x x 2  1  3   x 1  3 
2
 3
  2 
 x   x2 

As you may have realised that it’s not always that a limit will exist. There are
conditions that would allow the existence of a limit at a point. From the
previous illustration in figure 1, as we were approaching the 2 from either
side, the values were getting closer to some value.
3.1.2 Existence of a limit
In order for a limit to exist, the limit from the left and the limit from the
right must exist and be equal

Example 3. 2

x1
ifx0
f(
x)x

x1
ifx0
If
Since lim f ( x)  1 and lim f ( x)  1 the left and right hand limits are not the
x 0 x 0

same , therefore lim f ( x ) does not exist

x 0

Now having noted that its always that a limit exist, there are a number that can be
used to evaluate limits of functions. Below are some of the properties .

3.1.3 Properties of Limits

The following properties can used to evaluate these limits
lim f (x
) Land
lim
g
(x
)M
Let f (x) and g (x) be two functions and assume that x a 
xa

, where L and M are real numbers (and in both limits exist) then:

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 lim
[
f(
x
)g
(
x
)] 
[lim
f
(x
)]
[
lim
g
(
x
)]
L
M

xa 
xa 
xa
(I)

lim
kf
(
x
)k
lim
f(
x
)kL
for
any
cons
tan
tk

xa 
xa
(II)

lim
[
f(
x).
g(
x 
)]
[
lim
f
(x
)][
lim
g(
x 
)]
LM

xa 
xa 
xa
(III)

f(
x) lim

f
(x) L
lim xa
,if
0

xag
(x) lim
g
(x)M
(IV) 
xa

n
lim
f
(x
)
nlim
f(
x
)n
L 
where
L0

xa 
xa
(V)

Using the properties above, work out the following activity

Activity 3.2
1. Find all limits if they exist,
lim(2x 1) lim(3x 2) lim 7
i) x2
(ii) x1 (iii) x2

2. Evaluate the following limits if they exist;

3x215
x 4x2 x
lim2 lim
a) 6 x  16 x
2
b) x x
03 x
14 5 c) x0 x
lim
x 0 16 x 2  36 x

x2 4 n2 2n
lim lim 2
n n 1
d) x x e)
Having looked at ways of evaluating limits, we want now to
establish the connection between limits and the nature of function, whether
continuous or not.

3.1.4 Continuity and discontinuity of functions

If a is a limit then f (x) is continuous at a if and only if lim f ( x ) exists and is
x a

equal to f (a)
Let us consider the following illustration
Example 3.3
Determine whether the function continuous or not

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 We need to test the conditions that would qualify a function to be
continuous or not.
Testing the conditions
Condition 1: g (1)  2(1)  3  5 and g (1)  4  (1) 2  3
Both exist, hence satisfied
Condition 2: existence of a limit :

Since the limits are not the same, hence not continuous.
Would you test your understanding by exploring the questions below?

Activity 3.3

3.2 Derivative of a function

3.2.1 Definition of a derivative
As it has been described that this mathematics is concerned with change, in
your daily life, can you think of a quantity that changes over given conditions?
You could have thought of several issues, for example ‘body weight gain or loss
over a time’. You should have realised that you are simplifying looking at how
much a certain quantity is changing with respect to another. Let us look at
rates of change
3.2.2 Rate of change
Consider a ball thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 10m / s and that its
height (h) in metres after t seconds is approximately h(t )  8t  4t 2 .
Can you determine its average speed in the following time intervals?

a) t  0.25s to 1s
Given the average speed to be change of distance in the time given
distance covered
Average speed 
time taken
Since distance is given as a function of height in the time taken, h(t )  8t  4t 2
then
[8(1)  4(12 )]  [8(0.25)  4(0.25 2 )] 4  1.75
Average speed    3.58333
1  0.25 0.75
b) t  0.25s to 0.75s

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 Equally the average speed to be change of distance in the time given is worked
out as
distance covered
Average speed 
time taken
Since distance is given as a function of height in the time taken, h(t )  8t  4t 2
then
[8(0.75)  4(0.75 2 )]  [8(0.25)  4(0.25 2 )] 3.75  1.75
Average speed   4
0.75  0.25 0.5
c) t  0.25s to 0.5s

Similar approach gives us

[8(0.5)  4(0.5 2 )]  [8(0.25)  4(0.25 2 )] 3  1.75
Average speed   5
0.5  0.25 0.25
d) t  0.25s to 0.26s
[8(0.26)  4(0.26 2 )]  [8(0.25)  4(0.25 2 )] 1.8096  1.75
Average speed    5.96
0.26  0.25 0.01
e) t  0.25s to 0.251s
[8(0.251)  4(0.2512 )]  [8(0.25)  4(0.25 2 )] 1.755996  1.75
Average speed    5.996
0.251  0.25 0.001
f) t  0.25s to 0.2501s

This would give us 5.9996

What do you think is the best solution to of the speed when t  0.25s ?

A general approach can be used to find the best estimate in the given interval.
As you may realise that the speed at t  0.25s is arrived at as you narrow the
interval to the reference point.

To establish the average speed using the height function, we need to have a
smallest interval possible.

Assuming we have the interval from t to, t  t

Then the height will be based on h(t ) and h(t  t) , also the time difference t

[8(t  t )  4(t  t ) 2 ]  [8(t )  4(t 2 )] t (8  8t  4t ) 8  8t  4t

Average speed   
(t  t )  t t 1

From the above we can see that for us to get the best value of the estimate is to
let the interval be as small as possible, thereby approaching zero. This can be
written as
lim (8  8t  4t )  8  8t
t 0

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This gives a general expression that can be used for establishing the value of
the speed.
From the previous example, the average speed at 0.25s would be given by
8  8t  8  8(0.25)  6m / s

Comparing the two, can be generalized that the average speed can be found
using the same expression, say after 0.5 seconds,
8  8t  8  8(0.5)  4m / s

This limit gives us the change of distance with time .

This measure of how one factor changes in response to change in other factor is
what is called a derivative.
In this case the derivative of h(t )  8t  4t 2 is given by d (h(t ))  lim  h(t  t )  h(t )   8  8t

t 0 (t  t )  t 
dt  

Generally when given any function, say y  f (x) , the derivative of y with respect
to x is illustrated as figure 1

Figure 3.2 Derivative of a function

dy  f ( x  x)  f ( x) 
 lim  
dx x0 ( x  x)  x 

Recall that this is the same as the gradient of the tangent of the function at A(x,
y). So the derivative of a function at a point is the gradient of the function at
the point. The process of finding the derivative is called differentiation.

This approach of finding the derivative is what is referred to as the first principle
of differentiation.

Example 3.4

Find the derivative of the function y  3x 2 with respect to x using the first
principle.

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dy  f ( x  x)  f ( x)  3( x  x) 2  3x 2
 lim    lim
dx x0 ( x  x)  x  x0 x

Simplifying dy  lim 3( x  x)  3x  lim  3x  6 xx  3x  3x 

2 2 2 2 2

dx x0 x x0
 x 

dy 3( x  x) 2  3x 2  6 xx  3x 2 

 lim  lim  
dx x0 x x0
 x 

dy  6 xx  3x 2   6 x  3x 

 lim    lim    6x
dx x0 x  x0
 1 
The derivative of y  3x 2 would have been found to be 6 x . We can as well
explore the gradient of a function at a point, as you may remember that
gradient is also change of vertical axis with respect to change in the horizontal
axis.

3.2.4 Gradient of function at a point using the first principle

Using the Example 4, y  3x 2 we can find the gradient of the curve at x = 2.
As earlier worked out,
dy  f ( x  x)  f ( x)  3( x  x) 2  3x 2
 lim    lim
dx x0 ( x  x)  x  x0 x

Simplifying dy  lim 3( x  x)  3x  lim  3x  6 xx  3x  3x 

2 2
 2 2 2

dx x0 x x0
 x 

dy 3( x  x) 2  3x 2  6 xx  3x 2 

 lim  lim  
dx x0 x x0
 x 

dy  6 xx  3x 2   6 x  3x 

 lim    lim    6x
dx x0 x  x0 1 

Can you compare this answer to that of Example 4, what is your

conclusion?
You will discover the derivative of a function is the same as the gradient
function.

Then since we have now a gradient function dy  6 x

dx
The gradient at x = 2 is found by substituting this value in the gradient
function.
dy
 6 x  6(2)  12
dx

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 Activity 3.4
1. Can you find the derivative of the following using the first principle?
1
y
a) y  x
4
b)
yx c)
y  4x 2
d) x2
2. Determine the gradients of the functions at stated points.

5
y
a) y  2x :
2
x2 b) x2 : x  1 c)
y  2x : x  1.5
3

we can now extend this concept to include polynomials with several terms.

3.2.5 Differentiation of polynomials

Consider the equation y = t.
What do you think is the orientation of this equation on the coordinate plane,
the XOY axis?
This line represents a straight line parallel to the x –axis and so it has a
gradient of zero. Why do you think its gradient of zero?
This has to do with change in both the vertical and horizontal axes, one of
them is not changing.
dy
Which means that the  0 as the equation would equally be expressed as
dx
y  tx 0 and applying the first principle, this would give us zero.

The gradient of any constant is equal to zero and the derivative of a

constant is zero;
dy
Given y  t , then 0
dx
dy
Also that when given y  tx1 the gradient is t and hence the t
dx
From the Activity 1, you should have observed that the derivatives of x, x2, x3
and x4, were 1, 2x, 3x2, and 4x3 respectively.

dy
when given y  axn where n is rational, then  n(axn 1 )
dx

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When y  axn , the index of the variable being differentiated should reduce by 1
and the base to be multiplied by the index before being reduced.
This can be extended to any polynomial f ( x)  ax  a2 x 2  ....  an x n as it’s simply
a sum of several such terms.

Example 3.5
1. Find the derivative of y y  5 x 4  3x 2 with respect to
dy 4  


5(
4)
x1

3
2
x2
1

61
1
x0
dx
dy 3
 x
20 x
6 6
dx

2. Find the coordinates of the point where the function yx32x2 xhas a
gradient of 0.

dy 2
3x 4
x1
dx
dy
and we let  3x 2  4 x  1  0
dx
the formed equation can be solved using any method you are comfortable with
as covered in the earlier modules.
solving by factorisation we get

x2 3
3 xx10
x(x
3 )
1 (x
1 )0
1
x10 or
3 x10
1
this gives us x  1 and x 
3

to get corresponding values of y, we substitute in the equation yx 2x2 x

3

1 4 
getting coordinates (1,0) and  ,  .
 3 27 

Activity 3.5
dy
1. Find for the following
dx

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 1
1
y x4
a) y  x b) y7x 2x3 c) y 1 x
5 5 2
d) 2x

2. Determine the value of x at which the function y  3x 2  6 x  2 has a

gradient of zero.
3. Differentiate the following with respect to x

a) x(2 5x) b) x (25x) c) (x2)(x3) d) 2x(25x)

2 2

From the activity above in question 3, you may have realized that in order for
you to find the derivatives the terms should have been expanded first. Now this
may not easily be done if the powers were higher than the ones we dealt with
and as well as rational ones. It is with this reason that we will deal ways of
handling such.
3.2.6 Rules of differentiation
In some cases, you will be required to find derivatives of products of functions
as well as quotients of functions.
Recall from module 2 how we dealt with composite functions. We were able to
deal with functions within given function (somehow). Let us see how to handle
such cases.
Function of a function
Would you think of how to differentiate a function like y  ( x  4) 5 .
The immediate approach probably you thought of is first expanding as you did
in binomial expansions and followed by differentiating the expression.
Of course you are right.
The trouble is for instance when given a power say 20. This is the whole reason
of looking at a simpler approach.
Suppose we want to differentiate the function y  ( x  4) 5

We would want to make it simpler by letting u  x  4 and y  u 5

Which means that now y is now the function of u, hence creating another
function in terms of u.
Let us now find the derivatives of y  u 5 and u  x  4 the two functions in
terms of the variable ( u and x )
dy du
This lead us to  5u 4 and 1
du dx
we can arrange the expression as
dy dy du
 
dx du dx

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 dy
This would result to  5u 4  1
dx
you may now check the question.
In what variable is the solution expected to be?
dy
Since implies that we need to derivative of y with respect to x, we therefore
dx
expect to get back to the initial form.
dy
hence having our solution  5( x  4) 4 1  5( x  4) 4
dx

Generally when we have a function of u, and u is a function of x, then

dy dy du
 
dx du dx

dy
if y  (ax  b) n , then  n  a (ax  b) n 1
dx
Example
dy
if y  (7 x  8)10 then  10  7(7 x  8)101  70(7 x  8) 9
dx
let us now look at a case when given a product of functions.
Product Rule (a product of two functions in the same variable)
Suppose you have a product of two functions in the same variable,
g ( x)  u ( x)v( x)
Using the first principle of differentiation,
g ( x  h)  g ( x) [u ( x  h)v( x  h)  v( x)u ( x)]

h h
g ( x  h)  g ( x) [u ( x  h)v( x  h)  u ( x)v( x  h)  u ( x)v( x  h)  v( x)u ( x)]

h h
g ( x  h)  g ( x) u ( x  h)v( x  h)  u ( x)v( x  h) u ( x)v( x  h)  v( x)u ( x)
 
h h h
g ( x  h)  g ( x) v( x  h)[u ( x  h)  u ( x)] u ( x)[v( x  h)  v( x)
 
h h h
g ( x  h)  g ( x )
 v( x  h)u / ( x)  u ( x)v / ( x)
h
Getting the limit as h approaches zero,

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  g ( x  h)  g ( x ) 
lim  
  lim v( x  h)u ( x)  u ( x)v ( x)
/ /

h 0 h  h 0

g / ( x)  v( x)u / ( x)  u ( x)v / ( x)

If g ( x)  u( x)v( x) where u and v are functions in x,

Then g / ( x)  v( x)u / ( x)  u ( x)v / ( x)

Where u / ( x) and v / ( x) are derivatives of the functions.

Example 3.6
1. Differentiate y  ( x 3  7 x  1)(5 x  2)

Then letting u and v be (5 x  2) and ( x 3  7 x  1) respectively and g ( x)  u( x)v( x)

.
Then g / ( x)  v( x)u / ( x)  u ( x)v / ( x)

g / ( x)  ( x 3  7 x  1)(5)  (5 x  2)(3x 2  7)
That can be simplified as
dy
 g / ( x)  20 x 3  6 x 2  70 x  9
dx
dy 15  8 x 3
2. Given that y  ( x 2 )(4  3x 3 ) , you can equally show that 
dx x6
When given a quotient, what do we do?
Quotient Rule
In a similar way we can derive the formula for differentiating the quotient of
functions
u
If y  where u and v are functions of the same variable say x, then
v
du dv
v u
dy
 dx 2 dx
dx v

 u  u v  uv
' ' '
or using notation   
v v2

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 Example 3.7
2
Differentiate y  with respect to x.
x 1

 u  u v  uv
' ' '
Using    , u  2, v  x  1
v v2

dy ( x  1)(0)  2(1)
Then 
dx (x  1) 2

dy  2(1) 2
 
dx (x  1) 2
( x  1) 2
You may now attempt the questions after looking at the rules above.

Activity 3.6
1. Differentiate the following w. r.t. x using any appropriate method;
a) 5x2( 2x3-1)-2
b) 3 x( x  2)3
c) (2x3 –8)-2(3-2x )-4
2. Find the derivatives of the following; w.r.t. x
5x ( 2 x  1)3
a) b)
6x2  1 2x  1
2x
c) ,
3 6  2x
Hence determine the gradient of (2c) at the point where x=1

The Second differential coefficient.

dy
If y is a function of x, is also a function of x ( or a constant). Hence we can
dx
dy
differentiate with respect to x. this gives us the second differential
dx
dy
d( )
d2y
coefficient dx which is written as (read dee two y dee x two). The 2’s are
dx dx 2
dy
not squares but symbolise differentiating twice. The square of , for instance,
dx
2
 dy 
is written as  
 dx 

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 d2y
is sometimes written as f (x) where y = f(x
dx 2
d  dy  d 2 y
When you have repeated differentiation, say twice, you can write this as  
dx  dx  dx 2

Say y  4x 5
dy d2 y d  dy  d(20 x 4 )
 20 x 4 and     80 x 3
dx dx 2
dx  dx  dx

dny
This can even be generalised for higher derivatives such as
dx n
In order to help you consolidate the concept, would you work out this
question.

Activity 3.7 (Self marked.

dy d2y ( x  3)(3 x  2) d 2 y d  dy 
Find and , for the equation y  , given that   
dx dx2 x dx 2 dx  dx 

3.2.7 Implicit differentiation of Functions

What do you think is the difference between an explicit and implicit function?
When an expression can be written in the form y = f(x), such that
y = x3 – 2x + 3,
y is said to be an explicit function of x.
But when an expression can not easily be expressed one variable of the other
is said to be an implicit function.
such as,
y3 + x2 = x + y2
Cannot be written in the form y = f(x).
y is Implicit Function of x and y or y can be an implicit function of x
It is now necessary to differentiate an implicit function of y, with respect to x;
dy
that is, to find
dx

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Let us consider y 3  x 2  x  y 2  0 and use the first principle to determine the
derivative.
Using the small increments in x and y
y 3  x 2  x  y 2  0 can be written as

( y  y) 3  ( x  x) 2  ( x  x)  ( y  y) 2  0

Using the binomial expansion we get
y 3  3 y 2y  3 yy 2  y 3  x 2  2 xx  x 2  x  x  y 2  2 yy  y 2  0
Rearranging the terms
( y 3  x 2  x  y 2 )  (3 y 2y  2 xx  2 yy  x)  (x 2  y 2  3 yy 2 )  y 3  0 notice that the
first set of the expression is equal to zero.
0  (3 y 2y  2 xx  2 yy  x)  (x 2  y 2  3 yy 2 )  y 3  0

dy
Since we are interested in finding , we will let the increments approach
dx
y dy
zero and 
x dx
y y y y y
3y 2  2 x  2 y  1  x  y  3 y y  y 2  0
x x x x x
y dy
The terms in the expression will now approach zero and 
x dx
dy dy
3y 2  2x  2 y 1 0  0  0  0  0
dx dx
dy dy
Finally we have 3 y 2  2x  2 y 1 0
dx dx
And we can as well rearrange it to have
dy
(3 y 2  2 y )  1  2x
dx
1  2x
Therefore dy 
dx (3 y 2  2 y )

Can you notice what has happened to the terms in the in

dy dy
 2x  2 y  1  0 from y  x  x  y  0
3 2 2
3y 2
dx dx
The terms have been differentiated with respect to x and terms with y the
chain rule has been applied.

 like the first term d y 3   d y 3   dy  3 y 2 dy

dy dy du
Where 
dx du dx dx dy dx dx

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 dy
To find from an implicit equation, differentiate each term with
dx
respect to x using the chain rule;

for any function f ( y ) then

d
 f ( y )  dy
dy dx
Example 3.8
1. Differentiate wrt. x: 2y3 + x2 = x + y2
d d d (2 y 3 ) d ( x 2 ) d ( x) d ( y 2 )
(2 y 3  x 2 )  (x  y 2 )    
dx dx dx dx dx dx
dy dy dy dy
 6y2  2x  1  2 y , collecting like terms  6 y 2  2y  1  2x
dx dx dx dx

dy
(6 y 2  2 y )  1  2x
dx
dy 1  2x
 
dx 6 y 2  2 y

2. Determine the gradient of 3xy  y 2  x 2  3  0 at (1,1)

dy
First task is to for you to establish
dx
dy  dy  dy
 3 y  x   2 y  2x  0
dx  dx  dx
dy  2 x  3 y

dx 3x  2 y
dy  2(1)  3(1)
The gradient is   5
dx 3(1)  2(1)
Can you now attempt working out the following:

ACTIVITY 3.8

1. Differentiate the following implicit functions, w.r.t x.

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 1
a) y2 + y3 = 4x3 b) 3y4 +2 = 3x 2  4 yx c) xy
=10
dy
2. Find
dx
a) y3+ 3xy –x3 = 3
b) 5x2 +5y2 -6xy=13, hence determine its gradient at (1,2)
c) x2 + y3 =12, hence write down the equation of the tangent at (2,2)
3. The point (2, 1) lies on the curve Ax2 + By2 = 11 where A and B
are constants. If the gradient of the curve at that point is 6, find the value of A
and B.
let us now shift our attention some features that the functions display when
plotted on graphs.

3.3 Stationary points

3.3.1 Definition
Would you consider the orientation of the curve and the tangents in figure
3.

At What points do you think the curve changes its orientation?

Figure 3.3 Stationary points

What could be the values for the gradients at the identified points?

Recall that the derivative f’(x) of a function f(x) expresses the rate at which
f(x) changes with respect to x:
Observe the following;
If f’(x) > 0 then f(x) is increasing as x increases

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If f’(x) < 0 then f(x) is decreasing as x increases
If there is a point where f’(x) = 0, then f(x) is momentarily neither increasing
nor decreasing: f(x) is said to have a stationary value.
Can you examine figure 4 below;

Figure 3.4 Location of stationary points

From figure 4, A ,B and C shows the stationary points and the gradients
are zero as the tangents at the points are parallel to x-axis. [the tangent to
the curve at these points is horizontal or parallel to the x-axis].
What is happening to the gradients between stationary points?
Note that between the stationary points the gradients are either increasing
or decreasing in value.
How can you distinguish the stationary points?

3.3.2 Nature of stationary points

When a function is increasing, what do you expect the value of the gradient
to be? Also what is your observation when the function is decreasing?
Functions with a positive gradient throughout is said to be an increasing
function and also a decreasing function if the gradient is through out
negative. Figure 5 below shows this picture.

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Figure 3.5 Decreasing functions

Can we now explore further the graph in figure 4.

When moving from the left through A, what do you think will be gradient
changes?
You should have noted that as through A from left to right, the gradient
changes from positive [increasing], to zero at A, and then becomes negative
[decreasing]
At A there is a turning point. The value of y at A is called a maximum value
and A is called a maximum point.

Moving through B from left to right, the gradient changes from negative, to
zero at B, and then becomes positive. At B there is a turning point. The
value of y at B is called a minimum value and A is called a minimum
point.

The terms “maximum” and “minimum” apply only in the vicinity of a

stationary point, not to the curve overall: we may call the point a local
maximum or a local minimum.

Near C the gradient goes from positive, to zero at C, to positive again. At C,

the rate of change with respect to x of the gradient itself has changed sign:
to the left of C, the gradient gets smaller and smaller (less positive) [so the
rate of change of the gradient is negative] whereas to the right of C, the
gradient gets bigger (more positive) [so the rate of change of the gradient is
positive]. Points of inflexion

A point where the sign of the rate of change with respect to x of the gradient
itself does not changes is called a point of inflexion.

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The point C is a special type of point of inflexion that has a horizontal
tangent so that it is also a stationary point. Not all points of inflexion have
zero gradients. For example there are non-stationary points of inflexion at D
and E. Between A and D, the gradient is negative and getting more negative,
whereas between D and B the gradient, although still negative, is getting
less negative.

The tangent is not necessarily horizontal at a point of inflexion.

Distinguishing the nature of stationary points

How can you tell if the stationary point is a maximum, minimum or point of
inflexion?

Using the value of the function

From the figure 4, observe the following:
Just to the left, and just to the right, of A the value of y is less than it is
exactly at A.
Just to the left, and just to the right, of B the value of y is greater than it is
exactly at B.
Just to the left of C, the value of y is less than it is exactly at C, but just to
the right of C, the value of y is greater than it is exactly at C.

This leads to the following rules for the values of y on each side of the
stationary point as compared to y exactly at the stationary point:

both smaller both larger 1 larger, 1 smaller

local maximum local minimum point of inflexion

Table 1

This only works if the points chosen for comparison are sufficiently close to
the stationary point.

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Apart from the value of the function we can as well make use of the
gradient.

The first derivative test

dy
It is now a known fact that at a stationary point, the gradient is zero 0
dx
As we pass through a stationary point, the sign of the gradient may change.

Just to the left of A the gradient is positive and just to the right of A the
gradient is negative. [Check figure 4]
Just to the left of B the gradient is negative and just to the right of B the
gradient is positive.
Just to the left, and just to the right, of C the gradient is positive.
This leads to the following rules for the sign of the gradient on each side of
the stationary point:

local maximum
local minimum
point of inflexion

+ 0 - - 0 + + 0 + or - 0 -
sign of

graphically:

Figure 3.6 Use of derivatives

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Figure 3.7 Quality of Derivative

Let us now look at how we can use the above methods of identification
Example 3.9
1. Find the stationary points on the curve y  2 x 2  4 x 3 and state their
nature
(i.e. whether they are maxima , minima or points of inflexion).
dy
 4 x  12 x 2
dx

dy
At stationary points,  4 x  12 x 2  0
dx
 4x + 12x2 = 0 at stationary points

Solving the equation 4x (1 + 3x) = 0

Either 4x = 0 or 3x = -1
1
Therefore x  0, x  
3

To find the coordinates for stationary points we will use the values of
1
x  0, x   in the original equation.
3
Starting with x  0
Can you show that the corresponding value will be zero.

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 1  12   13  2
When x   , y  2    4    .
3  3   3  27
 1 2 
the stationary points are at 0,0  and   , 
 3 27 

let us now use the gradient with reference to the stationary points.
dy
Using the gradient function  4 x  12 x 2 and x  0
dx
Picking points just before and after x  0
dy
When x = -0.0001,  negative
dx
dy
When x = 0, 0
dx
dy
When x = 0.0001,  positive
dx

So the gradient goes progresses from -ve to zero and to +ve,

Can you check from figure 7
You can conclude that the point 0,0  is a minimum point.
1
a similar approach can be used for x  
3
dy
When x = -0.3334,  positive
dx
dy
When x = -0.3333..., 0
dx
dy
When x = -0.3332,  negative
dx

 1 2 
 , 
Using figure 7 we can conclude that the  3 27  is a maximum point.

Now let us look at another method of testing the nature of the

stationary points.

The second derivative test

d  dy  d 2 y
Recall that  
dx  dx  dx 2

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As we pass through a stationary point we can also examine the sign of the
rate of change of the gradient with respect to x: the second derivative.

The test states that:

dy d2y
If  0 and  0 then there is a local maximum.
dx dx 2

dy d2y
If  0 and  0 then there is a local minimum.
dx dx 2

dy d2y
If  0 and  0 then this test fails
dx dx 2

If the second derivative is zero, the test fails because, while a point of
inflexion always has zero second derivatives, it is also possible for a turning
point to have zero second derivatives.

Let us look at some examples.

Example 3.10

1. Find the nature of the stationary points of the function

f x   x 3  3x
Solution
We first establish the stationary points

Figure 3.8 Cubic equation

The stationary points are where f’(x) = 0.

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 f x   x 3  3x  f x   3x 2  3
f  x   0  3x 2  3  0
3x 2  3
x2 1
x  1

The stationary points are located at x  1 .

Can we establish the second derivative.

f x   3x 2  3  f x   6 x
 f x  1  6

The second derivative at x=+1 is positive so this is a local minimum.

f x   3x 2  3  f x   6 x
 f x  1  6

The second derivative at x = -1 is negative so this is a local maximum.

Can you now attempt the following questions.

Activity 3.9
1. Find and determine the nature of the stationary points if they exist;
a) y  x 2  3 b) y  x 3  12 x  1 c) y  2 x 4  2 x 3  x 2 d)
1
y  x
x
2. Sketch the following after finding the stationary points;
a) y  3x 2  x 3 b) y  x 3  6x 2 c) y  x 4  8x 3

Apart from the algebraic questions, you will be able to solve questions that
involve practical situations. Let us look at such questions.
3.3.3 Solving Practical Problems
This method of finding maxima and minima is very useful and can be used
to find the maximum and minimum values of all sorts of things.
Example 3.11

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1. Find the least area of metal required to make a closed cylindrical container
from thin sheet metal in order that it might have a capacity of 2000 π cm3.

The total surface area of the cylinder, S, is 2 π r2 + 2 π rh

The volume = π r2h = 2000 π

Therefore π r2h = 2000 π.

2000
Therefore h
r2

 2000 
Therefore S = 2πr2 + 2πr  2 
 r 

S= 4000π + 2πr2
r
So we have an expression for the surface area.
ds
To find when the surface area is a minimum, we need to Find
dr

ds 4000
 4r - 2 (π)
dr r
ds
When  0 , then
dr

ds 4000
 4r - 2 (π) = 0
dr r
Solving the r we able to get

r = 10

You should then check if this is indeed a minimum using

the technique above.

So the minimum area occurs when r = 10. This minimum

Area is found by substituting into the equation for the area
the value of r = 10.

S = 2 π r2 + 2 π rh

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S = 600π
Therefore the minimum amount of metal required is 600π cm2.
2. A farmer wants to put up a fence of length 80m against an existing
structure. He intends to form a rectangular shaped fence ( 3 sides) with
the other fourth side against an existing fence. What is the maximum area
that he can enclose?

Solution:

Sketching the diagram

Let’s call the length of the long side L and the length of each of the other
two sides w so that L + 2w = 80 metres. The area is A = wL. In general, the
area will change as both L and w change.

However, L and w are not independent because of the constraint

L + 2w = 80m, so there is only one independent variable, say L. We can use

this constraint L + 2w = 80 metres to express the area A in terms of the
length L of one side only:

L  2 w  80  2 w  80  L
L
w  40 
2
 A  wL
 L
A   40   L
 2
L2
A  40 L 
2

Now the area is expressed in terms of one independent variable L.

We must determine the maximum area.

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 Figure 9 Vertical axis (Area)
and Horizontal axis (L)

2
We need to find the maximum value of A  40 L  L
2

dA
The maximum value occurs at the turning point: 0
dL

L2
AL   40 L 
dA
  40  L
2 dL
dA
0  0  40  L
dL
L  40 metres

By setting the first derivative to zero we see that the maximum area occurs
where L = 40 metres.

We substitute this back into the expression for the width

L + 2w = 80 metres to find w

1
And w  (80  40)  20 m
2

We can now use the expression for area.

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 L2
AL   40 L  AL  40   1600 
1600
  800 m 2
2 2

So maximum area is 800m2 and dimensions are 40m by 20m.

Would you now work out the following questions.

Activity 3.10
1. Two numbers x and y are connected by the relation x + y = 6. Find the
values of x and y which are a stationary point of the function T = 2x2 + 3y2
and determine whether they make T a maximum or minimum. Hint:
express T in one variable

2. A rectangular box, with a lid, is made from thin metal. Its length is 2x cm
and its width is x cm. if the box must have a volume of 72cm3,
216
a) show that the area A cm2 of metal used is given by A  4 x 2 
x
b) find the value of x so that A is a minimum
let us also look at another feature of functions when plotted .

3.4 Asymptotes of functions

I would like us to explore some special types of functions that when plotted
on graphs display a unique feature.
1
Consider the curve y 
x
Can we analyse the orientation of the graph if plotted using the values in
the table

X -1000 -1 -0.01 0 1 1000 10000

Y -0.001 -1 -200 1 0.001 0.0001

Figure 3.10 Table of values

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Figure 3.11 Graph for y=1/x

From the graph you can observe that as the values of x increase, the values
of keep reducing as close to zero. Also when the x values keep reducing
the values of y keep increasing up to infinity.
The common part is that the graph does not intersect the vertical and
horizontal axes for the graph. [ x =0 and y = 0]
These lines that the graph will not intersect whatever values you use are
referred to as Asymptotes.
As you would have noticed the two lines are horizontal and vertical, hence
the types of asymptotes.

Horizontal asymptote: The line y = y0 is a "horizontal asymptote" of f(x) if

and only if f(x) approaches y0 as x approaches + or -  .

Definition of a vertical asymptote: The line x = x0 is a "vertical asymptote"

of f(x) if and only if f(x) approaches + or -  as x approaches x0 from the left
or from the right.

In some cases we would still have asymptotes that are neither vertical nor
horizontal.

Slant asymptote: The line y = ax + b is a "slant asymptote" of f(x) if and

only if lim f ( x)  ax  b
x  / 

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 Figure 3.12 Slant asymptote

The equations for the asymptotes can be identified using the concept of a limit.
Example 3.12
Determine the equation of asymptotes
1
a) lim  
 x
x  

Solution
1 1
lim     0
 x 
x  

And this is the axis where line does not intersect.

 2x 
b) lim  
x   x  2
 
 2x   2 
 2x  x  x   
lim    lim  lim  1   2
x   x  2
  x x  x  2  x 1  2 
   
x x 1 x 
The equations of the asymptote are y = 2 and x = 2

Activity 3.11
Determine the equation of asymptotes

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 1
a) y  1
x2
4
b) y  2 
x
x2
c) y
x
3.5 CURVE SKETCHING
To sketch the curve of a polynomial function, we need the following;
(i) Find the points where the curve crosses the axes especially where it
crosses the y-axis;
(ii) Determine the behaviour of the value of the function for large of x as well as for
small value of x (x→ +∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞)
𝒅𝒚
(iii) Locate all stationary points where 𝒅𝒙
= 0 and determine the
Maxima and the minima.
𝑑2 𝑦
(iv) Locate all points of inflexion that is where 𝑑𝑥 2
= 0,
(v) If necessary plot a few additional values.
Example 3.13
1 1
Sketch the curve of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 𝑥 3 − 2 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2
Solution
(i) When = 0 , y=0 thus the graph crosses the y-axis at y=2.
1 3 1
If f(x) =0 or y=0 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2 = 0
3 2

⇒ 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 12 = 0
The function crosses the x-axis at irrational roots.
(ii) When x is large and positive –y is also large and positive.
When x is large and negative –y is also large and negative.
𝒅𝒚
(iii) Stationary points where 𝒅𝒙
=0
𝒅𝒚
That is 𝒅𝒙
= 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0
(𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙 + 𝟏) = 𝟎
Therefore the critical value are either x= 2 or x=-1
1 1
When x= -1 then 𝑓(−1) = 3 (−1)3 − 2 (−1)2 − 2(−1) + 2
19
𝑦= 6
.
1 1
When x= 2 then 𝑓(2) = 3 (2)3 − 2 (2)2 − 2(2) + 2
4
𝑦= − 3.

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 19 4
Hence the critical points are ( −1, 6
) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ( 2, − 3 ).

We need to determine the nature of these critical or stationary points by using

𝑑2 𝑦
second differentiation that is
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
= 2𝑥 − 1.
𝑑2 𝑦 19
∴ 𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = −1, 𝑑𝑥 2
= 2(−1) − 1 = −3 < 0, thus ( −1, 6
) is a
maximum point.
𝑑2 𝑦 4
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 2, = 2(2) − 1 = +3 > 0, thus ( 2, − ) is a
𝑑𝑥 2 3

minimum point.
𝑑2 𝑦
(iv) Now we can find the point of inflexion that is where = 0,
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑦
= 2𝑥 − 1.
𝑑𝑥 2
2𝑥 − 1 = 0
1
𝑥=
2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
When 𝑥 = 2 then 𝑓 (2) = 3 (2)3 − 2 (2)2 − 2(2) + 2
19
𝑦= .
24
1 19
Hence the critical points are ( 2, 24
).
We can now sketch the curve

𝟏𝟗
𝟔

-1 2 x

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 −𝟒
𝟑

Activity 3.12

𝑓(𝑥) = −3𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 2 be a function

(i) Determine the intervals where the function is increasing
and where it is decreasing,
(ii) Use the second derivative test to determine and classify
the extreme points of the function.
(iii) Hence sketch the graph of the function.

3.6 Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions

3.6.1 Important limit of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

To find the differential coefficient of sinx, it is necessary to know the

limit of the

sin 𝑥
Fraction as x tends to zero. We shall assume that x is measured
𝑥

in radians, that OAB is a sector of a circle of radius r whose angle

x radians and that the tangent at A to the circle meets OB produced

at N

r B [Link]

O x A

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Then from the figure: area of OAB  area of sec tor OAB  area of OAN

area of OAB  area of sec tor OAB  area of OAN

1 2 1 1 AN
 r sin x  r 2 x  OA. AN but  tan x  AN  r tan x
2 2 2 OA

1 2 1 1
 r sin x  r 2 x  r 2 tan x
2 2 2

sin x  x  tan x

x sin x
1  sec x Or 1  cos x
sin x x

But as x 
 0 , sec x 
1

x sin x
 
1 or 
1, as x 
 0
sin x x

3.6.2 The differential coefficient of y = sinx

Let x have a small increment x , consequently y has a small increment y

Therefore the function y = sinx becomes y  y  sin( x  x) . Using notion of gradient

y  y  y sin( x  x)  sin x


x  x  x x

y sin( x  x)  sin x

 
x x

2 x  x x
2 cos( ). sin
y
  2 2
x x

2 x  x x  x 
= 2 x  x  
cos( ). sin sin
y 2 2  2 
 cos( )
x x 2  x 
 
2  2 

x
As x 
 0, y dy
sin
2  and cos(2 x  x ) 
 cos x

 and 1 2
x dx x
2

dy
  cos x
dx

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 d (sin x)
That is  cos x
dx

3.6.3 The differential coefficient of y = cosx

Using a similar notation, the gradient of the chord joining the points

(x, cosx) and [x+ x , cos(x + x )] on the curve y = cosx

y  y  y cos(x  x)  cos x


x  x  x x

2 x  x x
 2 sin( ). sin
y 2 2

x x
2 x  x x
 sin( ). sin
y 2 2

x x
2

 x 
2 x  x  sin 
=  sin( ) 2 
2  x 
 
 2 

 x 
y  sin 
 lim (  sin( 2 x  x ) 2 )
x x  0 2  x 
 
 2 

dy
  sin x
dx

d (cos x)
   sin x
dx

Examples 3.14

1. Differentiate wrt x
a) y  sin( ax  b)

Solution

dy d (sin( ax  b)
y  sin( ax  b) ; `  = a cos(ax  b)
dx dx

by letting u = ax + b and differentiating u wrt x and also differentiating y wrt u

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 du dy
we have  a and y  sin( ax  b) becomes y  sin u so that  cos u
dx du

dy du dy dy
And now  .  [Link]  a cos(ax  b)
dx dx du dx

dy d (sin( ax  b)
 = a cos(ax  b)
dx dx

b) y  cos(ax  b)

Solution

by letting u = ax + b and differentiating u wrt x and also differentiating y wrt u

du
we have  a and y  cos(ax  b) becomes y  cos u so
dx

dy
that   sin u
du

dy du dy
And now  .
dx dx du

dy
 a.( sin u )  a sin( ax  b)
dx

c) y  x 2 cos x

Solution

For y  x 2 cos x we use the product rule. By letting u = x2 and v = cosx

du dv dy du dv
 2 x and   sin x Product rule states v u
dx dx dx dx dx

dy
  cos x(2 x)  x 2 ( sin x) =2xcosx – x2sinx
dx

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 ACTIVITY 3.13

dy
1. In each of the following find
dx

a) y  x sin 2 x

b) y  4  sin 2 2 x

x
c) y  cot
2

d) y  sin 3 2 x

e) y  sin 3x cos 2 x

1  sin x
f) y 
1  sin x

dy 
2. If y  x sin 2 x, find the value of when x 
dx 2
d2y
3. Given y  A cos 2 x  B sin 2 x, where A and B are constants, show that + 4y = 0.
dx 2

if also y = 3 when x  and that
2
dy
= 4, when x = 0, find the value of A and of B.
dx

3.7 The exponential coefficient of the exponential

function

The function y = e f ( x ) is called an exponential function. To differentiate this

function we

let u be f(x) so that y = e f ( x ) is now written as y  e u . Now differentiate u with

respect

to x and y with respect to u.

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 du dy
 f (x)  eu
dx du

dy du dy
 .
dx dx du

dy
  f ( x)e f ( x )
dx

d (e f ( x ) )
 f ( x)e f ( x )
dx

Examples 3.15

1. differentiate wrt to x

a) y  e axb

Solution

dy d (e axb ) )
y  e axb 
dx dx

du
let u = ax + b ;  a and y  e u
dx

dy
so that  eu
du

dy du dy
Now  .
dx dx du

dy
  a.e u  a.e axb
dx

xe x
b) y = ;
x 1

Solution

This is composite, you will break the function in this manner:

let u  xe x and v  x  1 Using quotient rule

vu   uv  du ( x  1)(e x  xe x )  xe x .1
f ( x)  where u   e  xe and v  1
x x

v2 dx ( x  1) 2

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 e x [( x  1)(1  x)  x]
=
( x  1) 2

ACTIVITY 3.13

1. Differentiate the following with respect to x

a) y  e x ,
2
b) y  e sin x , c) y  x 3 e 2 x

2. Find the coordinates of the point where the curves y  e 5 x 2

and y  e 4 x meet and the gradient of each curve at that point.

3. Given that y  x 2 e 2 x , find the values of x for which y is a

stationary point.
du
4. If y  a x , show that ln y  x ln a and hence find .
dx
5. Find the gradient of the curve y  e 2 x cos x where x = 0.

3.8 Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions y = ln x

Simple logarithm function

Transforming y  ln x into the equivalent indicial equation gives e y  x . y is

now an implicit function of x. Differentiating with respect to x

d y d
(e )  ( x)
dx dx

dy dy 1
ey 1  
dx dx e y

Substituting e y  x

d (ln x) 1

dx x

3.8.1 Logarithm of a composite function

The general rule used to differentiate a composite function ln f(x)

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d
(ln f ( x)) . Suppose that y  ln f ( x) . By substitution; let u = f(x) so that y = ln
dx
u

dy 1
 and
du u
du d
 ( f ( x))  f ( x)
dx dx

dy du dy 1
 . = . f ( x )
dx dx du u

dy f ( x )
 
dx f ( x)

Example 3.16

If the logarithm function contains a compound function such as y  ln( 2 x 2  4) ,

differentiate y wrt x.

Solution

The function can be differentiated as a function of a function, ie

dy 1 d
  (inner function)
dx inner function dx

dy 1 d
Therefore in the above function:  x (2 x 2  4)
dx (2 x  4) dx
2

dy 4x
 2
dx 2 x  4

Example 3.17
𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑦 = ln sin 3𝑥. Find .
𝑑𝑥

Solution
𝜕𝑢
Let then = 3 cos 3𝑥 hence
𝜕𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
𝑦 = ln 𝑢 and = 𝑢.
𝑑𝑢

By Chain Rule

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 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒖
i.e = ×
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒙

𝟏
= × 3 cos 3𝑥, since 𝑢 = sin 3𝑥
𝒖

3 cos 3𝑥
=
sin 3𝑥

Activity 3.14

1. Differentiate the following with respect to the appropriate variable

a) y  ln 7 x

b) y  ln( 8 x 2  1)

c) z  ln( 3t 2  7t  1)

4x
d) y  ln( )
x2

e) ln( y 2  2)  4 x 2  6

2. Differentiate wrt x

a) y  ln(sin x)

b) y  x ln x

c) ln x ln 3x

d) cos(ln x)

e) y  ln( x cos x)

3. Differentiate ln( x  sin x) . Hence find the gradient of the curve y = ln( x  sin x)
where x  
sin x d sin x
4. Differentiate . Hence show that (ln )   cos ecx..
1  cos x dx 1  cos x

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