Chapter 5: Geodynamics

Outline
• Earthquakes-
• seismic waves, seismograph, causes, effects, seismic zones, shield areas and seismic resisting structures;
Coastal zones, coastal landforms, continental shelf, continental rise, continental slope, abyssal plain, mid-
oceanic ridges, trenches, tsunamis;

• Landslides – causes, effects and remedial measures.

5) EARTHQUAKES
Definition
❑ Earthquakes are shock (seismic) waves generated by sharp movements along fractures (mainly
faults).
❑ They relieve stress in the crustal rocks. They are charactarised by uncertainty and unpredictability.

(i) How do earthquakes occur?

❑ Stress accumulates in rocks due to movement of lithospheric plates relative to one another.
❑ When the stress exceeds the strength of rocks failure and slip along fractures occurs.

Earthquake hazards
❑ Earthquakes range from slight tremors which do little damage to severe shocks which can open
fractures in the ground, initiate fault scarps and landslides, break and overthrow buildings, and
severe supply mains and lines of transport.
❑ Worst effects are produced in weak grounds, especially young deposits of sand, clay, and silt.
❑ These sediments may shake violently if their modulli of elasticity and rigidity are sufficient to
attenuate adequately the acceleration imparted to their particles by an earthquake.
❑ The bedrock beneath them may be affected slightly by reason of its strength.
Precautions to Earthquake hazard
❑ Earthquake resistant structures play a big role in saving lives and property in an event of an
earthquake.
❑ These structures include frames of steel that are founded directly onto rock and will remain intact
when shaken.
❑ All earthquakes are generated in the outer 700km of the earth and all destructive earthquakes,
whenever they occur originate from less than 70km.
(ii) Earthquake Intensity
❑ The intensity of an earthquake can be estimated from the effects felt or seen by an observer.
❑The effects are graded according to a scale of intensity (Mercalli Scale) which has 12 grades as
follows:
I. Detected only by instruments
II. Felt by some people at rest; suspended objects may swing.
III. Felt noticeably indoors; vibration like the passing of a truck.
IV. Felt indoors by many, outdoors by some, windows and doors rattle.
V. Felt by everyone; some windows brocken; pendulum clocks stops.
VI. Felt by all, many frightened; some heavy furniture moved, some fallen plaster; general damage
slight.
VII. Everyone runs outdoors; damage to poorly constructed buildings; weak chimneys fall.
[Link] damage to buildings, except those specially designed. Tall chimneys, columns fall; sand and
mudflow from cracks in the ground.
IX. Damage considerable in substantial buildings, ground cracked, buried pipes brocken.
X. Disastrous; framed buildings destroyed, rails bent, small landslides.
XI. Few structures left standing; wide fissures opened in ground with slumps and landslides.
XII. Damage total; ground warped, waves seen moving through ground, objects thrown upwards.

❑ A more accurate measure of the earthquake activity is provided by the amount of the energy
release in an earthquake, this is defined by its magnitude referred here as M.
❑ The scale of magnitude due to C.F. Ritcher (1952) is based on the maximum amplitudes shown
on records made with a seismograph.
❑ The scale is logarithmic and is related to the elastic wave energy E by log E=4.8 + 1.5 M.
❑ M ranges between 0 to 9. The smallest felt shocks have M=2 to 2.5.
❑ Damaging shocks have M=5 and any earthquake greater than M=7 is a major disaster.
❑ The origin of elastic vibrations due to an earthquake is the focus.
❑ The point on the earth’s surface immediately above the earthquake focus is called the epicenter.
The earthquake effects are most intense at the epicenter.
Earthquakes at SEA
❑ When a major earthquake at sea rapidly changes the elevation of the ocean floor, a volume is
created that has to be filled by sea water.
❑ Sea-level drops, sometimes causing beaches in the region to be exposed and large waves called
Tsunamis may be generated as sea level re-establishes itself. These can devastate coastal areas when
they strike a shoreline.
Regions of active earthquakes
❑ Most of the active earthquake centres at the present day are located along 2 belts at the earth’s
surface:
o Around the coastal regions of the pacific from the East indies through the Philippines, Japan, the
Aleutian isles and down the western coasts of North and South America.
o Extends from Europe (Alpine ranges) through the eastern Mediterrnean to the Himalayas and East
Indies, where it joins the first belt.
 ❑ These belts coincide with the active margins of the world, which characterized by much faulting
and numerous volcanoes.
❑ Many small shocks also occur in zones of submarine fault activity associated with the oceanic
ridges e.g. mid- Atlantic ridge, and others in fault zones on the continents e.g. Rift Valley system of
Africa.
Earthquake waves
❑ When an earthquake occurs, elastic vibrations (or seismic waves) are propagated in all directions
from its center of origin or focus. Two kinds of waves are recorded:
➢ Body waves comprising of compressional vibrations (primary or P-waves) which are faster and the
first to arrive at a recording station and transverse or shear vibrations, called S waves slightly
slower than P-waves.
➢ Surface waves (or L-waves) similar to the ripples seen expanding from the point where a stone is
dropped into water and created by love-wave (LQ) and Rayleigh wave (LR) ground motions.
❑ Surface waves are of the long periods that follow the periphery of the earth;
❑ they are the slowest but have large amplitudes and do the greatest damage to the surface.
❑ M is calculated from their amplitude.
❑ The earthquake waves generated due to ground vibrations are detected and recorded by a
seismograph.
Effects of Earthquakes
The effects of the earthquakes can be grouped into:
➢ Primary effects
➢ Secondary effects

Primary Effects
❑ These are caused directly by the earthquake phenomena. They include violent ground motions
accompanied by fracturing that may cause permanent displacement of several metres.
❑ The violent motions produce sudden surface accelerations of the ground, which can snap and
uproot large trees and knock people on the ground.
❑ The motions may shear or collapse large building, dams, tunnels, pipelines, and other rigid
structures.

Secondary effects
These include short range effects such as:
❑ Landslides (triggered directly by earthquakes),
❑ Fires (indirectly caused by disruption of electrical power lines and broken gas lines),
❑ Tsunamis and floods and
❑ Long range effects such as regional subsidence or emergence landmasses (these are a
combination of uplift and subsidence (vertical deformation)),
❑ Tectonic creep (slow nearly continuos movement along a fault not accompanied by an
earthquake it slowly damages roads, sidewalks, building foundations) and
❑ Regional changes in groundwater levels.
Earthquakes caused by human activity
Three ways that man has caused earthquake include:
❑ Loading the earth crust through construction of the dams and reservoirs. Fracture zones are
activated by the increased load of the water on the land and by the increased water pressure
on the rocks below the reservoir. The water also acts as lubricant to faults and this can facilitate
fault motion.
❑ Disposal of waste into deep wells. e.g. M =4.5 earthquake at Denver, Colorado due to chemical
waste. The new liquid increased fluid pressure, facilitating slippage along the fractures and
precipitating earthquakes.
❑ Setting off underground nuclear explosions. This has triggered earthquakes at the Nevada
test-site. Explosion are accompanied by aftershocks, which are probably triggered by the
release of natural tectonic stress.
Seismic ray paths through the earth mantle and
core with the respective phase names according
to the international nomenclature. The red rays
relate to the 3-component analog KIRNOS
broadband record of body-waves from an
earthquake at D = 112.5° at station MOX,
Germany
iii) Earthquake prediction and mitigation
• Predicting earthquakes with pinpoint accuracy remains a significant challenge for
scientists and researchers, as earthquakes are complex, dynamic events that involve the
sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust.
• However, there are ongoing efforts to monitor seismic activity and mitigate the impact of
earthquakes
1) Seismic Monitoring:
• Seismometers and other instruments are used to detect and record ground motion,
which helps in understanding seismic activity in a region.
• Monitoring networks like the Global Seismographic Network (GSN) and regional
networks track seismic events worldwide.
• Identifying patterns in seismic activity, such as foreshocks and swarms, can provide clues
about potential larger earthquakes.
2) Early Warning Systems:
• Some earthquake-prone regions have developed early warning systems that can detect
the initial, less destructive seismic waves (P-waves) and send alerts seconds to minutes
before the more damaging waves (S-waves and surface waves) arrive.
• These systems provide valuable time for people to take cover or for critical infrastructure
to shut down to minimize damage.
3) Probabilistic Hazard Assessment:
• Scientists use probabilistic models to estimate the likelihood of earthquakes of different
magnitudes occurring in specific regions over a given timeframe.
• These assessments help in urban planning and building code development.
4) Earthquake Prediction Research:
• Researchers study various precursors like changes in groundwater levels, animal
behavior, and radon gas emissions to predict earthquakes. However, these methods have
not proven consistently reliable.
5) Mitigation Strategies:
• Building Codes: Design and construction standards for buildings and infrastructure in
earthquake-prone areas are critical for minimizing damage. Reinforced structures are
more resilient.
• Retrofitting: Older buildings can be retrofitted to withstand earthquakes by adding
structural enhancements.
• Land-Use Planning: Zoning regulations can help control urban development in seismically
active areas.
• Public Awareness and Education: Educating the public about earthquake preparedness
and safety measures can save lives.
• Emergency Response Planning: Communities need well-prepared emergency response
plans to handle earthquake-related disasters.
 iv) Location of Epicenter
• The location of an earthquake's epicenter is the point on the Earth's surface directly above the
earthquake's hypocenter (or focus), which is the actual point within the Earth's crust where the
earthquake originates.
• To determine the location of an earthquake's epicenter, seismologists use data from multiple
seismometer stations that record the seismic waves generated by the earthquake.
Seismometer Network: A network of seismometers is spread out over a region or even globally.
These instruments detect and record ground motion caused by seismic waves.
Arrival Time of P-Waves and S-Waves: When an earthquake occurs, it generates seismic waves that
travel through the Earth. The first set of waves to arrive at a seismometer station are P-waves
(primary or compressional waves), followed by S-waves (secondary or shear waves). Each station
records the arrival times of these waves.
Time Difference: By measuring the time difference between the arrival of P-waves and S-waves at a
given station, seismologists can calculate the distance from the station to the earthquake's
hypocenter. The greater the time difference, the farther the station is from the earthquake.
Circle of Uncertainty: Using data from multiple seismometer stations, seismologists can determine
the distance from each station to the earthquake's hypocenter. These distances are used to draw
circles around each station, with the station itself as the center and the radius equal to the
calculated distance.
Intersection of Circles: The intersection point of these circles is the estimated location of the
earthquake's epicenter. This method is known as the "triangulation" technique.
Refining the Location: More seismometer data from additional stations can further refine the
location of the epicenter, reducing the margin of error.
 v) seismic force on structures
• Seismic forces, also known as earthquake forces or ground motion forces, are the forces exerted
by the ground during an earthquake.
• These forces can be extremely powerful and can have a significant impact on structures and
buildings.
• Engineers and architects design structures to resist seismic forces to ensure their safety and
integrity during earthquakes.
1) Ground Motion:
• Seismic forces result from the ground shaking caused by the passage of seismic waves during an
earthquake. The ground motion can vary in intensity and direction depending on the
earthquake's location, depth, magnitude, and the geological characteristics of the region.
2) Types of Seismic Forces:
• Seismic forces can be categorized into two main types: lateral forces and vertical forces.
• Lateral forces: These forces act horizontally and are responsible for causing swaying or
lateral movement in structures. They are the primary concern for most buildings.
• Vertical forces: These forces act vertically and can lead to changes in the building's weight
distribution. They are typically smaller than lateral forces but still important in design.
• 3. Response of Structures:
• Buildings and structures respond to seismic forces in different ways based on their
design, size, and materials.
• Rigid structures, like tall buildings, may sway back and forth to absorb and dissipate the
energy from the earthquake.
• Flexible structures, like bridges, may deform or bend to accommodate the seismic forces.

4) Earthquake-Resistant Design Features:

• To resist seismic forces, structures may incorporate various features, such as:
• Reinforced concrete or steel frames and shear walls to provide lateral stability.
• Base isolators or damping systems to reduce the transmission of seismic forces to
the structure.
• Flexible joints and connections to allow controlled movement.
• Strengthening and retrofitting of older buildings to meet modern seismic standards.
5) Importance of Foundation:
• The foundation of a structure plays a crucial role in resisting seismic forces. Engineers
design foundations to prevent excessive settlement, sliding, or tilting during an
earthquake.
1. Shield Areas:
o Shield areas, also known as seismic buffer zones or protective zones, refer to designated
areas around critical infrastructure or sensitive facilities where development is restricted or
controlled to mitigate the effects of seismic hazards. These areas are typically established
based on seismic zoning maps, seismic hazard assessments, and building codes/regulations.
o Shield areas aim to minimize the risk of damage or collapse to essential facilities (e.g.,
hospitals, emergency response centers, power plants) during earthquakes by limiting nearby
development or implementing additional engineering measures to enhance structural
resilience.
o Development restrictions in shield areas may include limitations on building height, land use
zoning, setback requirements, and building design standards to ensure that structures can
withstand seismic forces and protect occupants and assets.
2. Seismic Resisting Structures:
o Seismic resisting structures, also known as earthquake-resistant or earthquake-proof structures, are
buildings, bridges, dams, and other engineered structures designed to withstand the forces generated
by earthquakes and minimize damage or collapse.
o These structures incorporate specialized design features, materials, and construction techniques to
enhance their seismic performance and resilience. Key principles of seismic-resistant design include:
▪ Providing lateral load resistance to counteract the horizontal forces exerted by earthquakes, such
as ground shaking and fault rupture.
▪ Distributing seismic forces throughout the structure to prevent localized failure and ensure
uniform deformation.
▪ Incorporating ductile materials and structural elements capable of absorbing energy and
undergoing controlled deformation without sudden failure.
▪ Implementing redundancy and robustness in structural systems to ensure multiple load paths and
fail-safe mechanisms.
 o Common seismic resisting measures include reinforced concrete frames, steel moment
frames, braced frames, base isolation systems, damping devices, and structural
strengthening techniques.
o Seismic resisting structures are designed in accordance with seismic design codes, standards,
and guidelines established by national and international organizations (e.g., International
Building Code, Eurocode, ASCE 7) to ensure compliance with safety and performance
requirements.

•
1. Coastal Zones:
o Coastal zones are transitional areas where the land meets the sea. They encompass
a variety of environments, including beaches, estuaries, wetlands, cliffs, and coastal
forests.
o Coastal zones are dynamic regions influenced by the interaction of marine and
terrestrial processes, including tides, waves, currents, erosion, sedimentation, and
biological activity.
o They are important for biodiversity, serving as habitats for marine and terrestrial
species, breeding grounds for fish and migratory birds, and nurseries for marine life.
2. Coastal Landforms:
o Coastal landforms are physical features shaped by coastal processes and geologic
forces. Examples include:
▪ Beaches: Depositional landforms formed by the accumulation of sand, gravel, or
pebbles along the shoreline.
▪ Cliffs: Erosional landforms characterized by steep rock faces formed by wave
action or tectonic activity.
▪ Deltas: Accumulations of sediment deposited at the mouths of rivers, where
they meet the sea, forming complex networks of channels and islands.
▪ Barrier islands: Long, narrow offshore islands parallel to the mainland, separated
by lagoons or estuaries.
▪ Headlands and bays: Prominent coastal features formed by differential erosion,
with headlands protruding into the sea and bays indenting the coastline.
3. Continental Shelf:
o The continental shelf is the gently sloping, submerged portion of the continental
crust extending from the shoreline to the continental slope.
o It typically extends to depths of about 200 meters (656 feet) below sea level and
varies in width from a few kilometers to hundreds of kilometers.
o The continental shelf is rich in marine life and mineral resources, supporting
fisheries, oil and gas exploration, and undersea mining activities.
4. Continental Slope:
o The continental slope is the steeply inclined portion of the continental margin that
extends from the outer edge of the continental shelf to the ocean floor.
o It marks the boundary between the continental crust and the oceanic crust and is
characterized by submarine canyons, channels, and sedimentary deposits.
o The continental slope is often subject to underwater landslides and turbidity
currents, which transport sediment and organic material to the abyssal plain.
5 Continental Rise:
o The continental rise is the gently sloping accumulation of sediment at the base of the continental
slope, extending seaward to the deep-ocean floor.
o It consists of thick layers of sediment deposited by turbidity currents, sediment gravity flows, and
other sediment transport processes.
o The continental rise acts as a transition zone between the continental slope and the abyssal plain
and serves as a major repository for marine sediments.
6 Abyssal Plain:
o The abyssal plain is the vast, flat expanse of the ocean floor located at depths greater than 4,000
meters (13,123 feet) below sea level.
o It covers more than 50% of the Earth's surface and is characterized by low relief, sedimentary
deposits, and volcanic features such as seamounts and abyssal hills.
o The abyssal plain is one of the most remote and least explored regions on Earth, home to diverse
marine life adapted to extreme pressure and darkness.
•
Causes of Landslides:
1. Geological Factors:
o Weak or weathered rock and soil formations that are prone to failure.
o Presence of geological structures such as faults, joints, or bedding planes that create zones of weakness.
o Steep slopes or cliffs that exceed the stability threshold of the underlying materials.
2. Hydrological Factors:
o Saturation of soil or rock due to heavy rainfall, snowmelt, or changes in groundwater levels.
o Seepage of water into the slope, which reduces soil cohesion and increases pore water pressure.
3. Anthropogenic Activities:
o Excavation or construction activities that alter the natural slope geometry or load conditions.
o Deforestation, mining, quarrying, and urbanization that remove vegetation, disturb soil stability, and increase
surface runoff.
4. Seismic Activity:
o Earthquakes and ground shaking can trigger landslides by destabilizing slopes and inducing slope failures.
o Seismic events can also generate landslides indirectly by altering groundwater levels and increasing pore
pressure.
Effects of Landslides:

1. Loss of Life and Property:

o Landslides can result in fatalities, injuries, and damage to buildings, infrastructure, and transportation
networks.
o Destruction of homes, roads, bridges, utilities, and agricultural land can lead to economic losses and
displacement of communities.

2. Environmental Damage:
o Alteration of natural landscapes, loss of vegetation, and disruption of ecosystems.
o Sedimentation of water bodies, contamination of surface water, and disruption of aquatic habitats.

3. Geotechnical Hazards:
o Creation of unstable slopes and debris flows that pose ongoing hazards to communities downstream.
o Increased susceptibility to erosion, flooding, and secondary hazards such as debris flows and dam
failures.
Remedial Measures for Landslides:
1. Engineering Solutions:
o Slope stabilization techniques such as terracing, grading, and benching to reduce slope steepness and
improve stability.
o Installation of retaining structures, such as retaining walls, soil nails, and rock bolts, to reinforce unstable
slopes.
o Construction of drainage systems, surface water diversion channels, and erosion control measures to manage
water infiltration and runoff.
2. Vegetation Management:
o Reforestation, afforestation, and revegetation of landslide-prone areas to enhance slope stability and soil
retention.
o Planting of deep-rooted vegetation to bind soil particles, absorb rainfall, and reduce surface erosion.
3. Land Use Planning and Regulation:
o Implementation of zoning regulations, land use restrictions, and building codes to limit development in
landslide hazard areas.
o Identification of hazard zones through landslide susceptibility mapping and incorporation of risk assessment
into land use planning processes.
4 Early Warning Systems:
o Development of monitoring and early warning systems to detect precursory signs of slope instability
and provide timely alerts to at-risk communities.
o Deployment of sensors, inclinometers, and geotechnical instrumentation to monitor ground
movement, slope deformation, and rainfall-triggered landslides.
5 Community Preparedness and Education:
o Public awareness campaigns, community training programs, and emergency response drills to educate
residents about landslide risks, evacuation procedures, and preparedness measures.
o Establishment of emergency shelters, evacuation routes, and communication networks to support
disaster response and recovery efforts.
6 Integrated Risk Management:
o Adoption of a multi-hazard approach to landslide risk management that considers interactions with
other natural hazards such as floods, earthquakes, and wildfires.
o Integration of risk reduction measures into broader disaster risk management strategies at the local,
regional, and national levels.