TOPIC # 1: IMPORTANCE OF WRITING AS MEANS OF

COMMUNICATION IN PROFESSIONAL AND SCIENTIFIC

FIELDS
Scientific writing is not just writing about science; it is the technical writing that scientists do to
communicate their research to others. Scientific writing is predicated on the rigors of scientific
inquiry, so it must reflect the same precision as that demanded in the research process. Scientific
communication demands precision (the precise use of words and phrases) and clarity. This
distinction is an important one because the writer is communicating highly technical information
to others who might, or might not, be as knowledgeable; they may be from a different discipline;
they may, or may not, be a native speaker of the language used. Many journals have international
audiences, so precise communication helps prevent misunderstandings and mistranslations in other
contexts. Communicating facts, figures, and methods used in research––as well as the description
of the results––has to be precise and exact. The research question, hypotheses, methods, analysis,
and conclusions must be stated clearly and simply.

What does it mean to write clearly and precisely?

First, writers should focus on the words they use and their punctuation. Subtle differences in word
choice or punctuation can have significantly different meanings. Here are a few examples:

• In some fields, “de-stabilized” does not mean “not stable”; it means less stable than before.
• Instead of writing, “Our models worked well when compared with the calculated values,
which is evidenced by the percent errors,” write, “As the percent errors indicate, our models
worked well when compared with the calculated values.” In the revised version of this
sentence, the meaning suddenly emerges.
Also, the organization of your writing is critical. The organization of a paper is logical, with rules
for what goes into each section. Read papers from your particular discipline to understand the
relevant rules. Briefly, your order of presentation should make the most sense to your reader. This
is what is commonly referred to as “readablility.” If your reader has to work too hard to understand
your meaning or your organization, you have a problem in your writing. In the Methods section,
the description should be complete enough. Also, explain why each procedure was done, i.e., what
variable were you measuring and why?

Remember, you’re not writing to impress. You’re writing to communicate.

What strategies can you use to write clearly and concisely?

This is the point where scientific writing most noticeably resembles other types of writing. Logic
and organization isn’t automatic. It doesn’t come naturally from your head to the paper. You need
to step back and impose logic on your writing; you then need to crystallize it by always asking
yourself this question: “Will this make sense to the reader?” It doesn’t matter if it makes sense to
you. It must make sense to the reader. When you explain something to someone face-to-face, you
have instant feedback; you can quickly tell if the person you’re talking to understands what it is
you’re saying––they provide verbal or non-verbal feedback. You don’t have that luxury with
writing. You have one chance.

And, of course, the first step in being logical is in the creation of an outline before you begin
writing. Every paragraph should have one topic sentence, not two or three. All sentences in a
paragraph should support or elaborate upon what your topic sentence says you plan to discuss.
You should be able to provide a rationale for why each sentence is placed where it is in each
paragraph. All of your paragraphs should be logically organized around your section headings or
sub-headings. You should have a rationale for where each paragraph is placed. You must maintain
a natural logic that is accessible to the reader.

In general, good writers:

1. Use effective transitions between sections, paragraphs, sentences, and within sentences.
Transitions are words or phrases that are inserted into writing in order to connect
thoughts and [Link] allow for the reader to easily follow the
progression of the writing by adding flow.

LOGICAL TRANSITIONAL EXPRESSION

RELATIONSHIP

Similarity also, in the same way, just as, likewise, similarly

Exception/Contrast but, however, in spite of, on the one hand … on the other hand,
nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, in contrast, on the contrary,
still, yet

Sequence/Order first, second, third, … next, then, finally

Time after, afterward, at last, before, currently, during, earlier, immediately,

later, meanwhile, now, recently, simultaneously, subsequently, then

Example for example, for instance, to illustrate

Emphasis even, indeed, in fact, of course, truly

Place/Position above, adjacent, below, beyond, here, in front, in back, nearby, there

Cause and Effect accordingly, consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus

Additional Support or additionally, again, also, and, as well, besides, equally important, further,
Evidence furthermore, in addition, moreover, then

Conclusion/Summary finally, in a word, in brief, briefly, in conclusion, in the end, in the final
analysis, on the whole, thus, to conclude, to summarize, in sum, to sum
up, in summary
 2. Use strong verbs and concrete nouns. Don’t start sentences with weak phrases like, “There
are . . .“ or “In order to determine,” instead of “To determine.”
3. Always strive to express the implicit in clear/explicit form.
4. After you’ve written a section, step away from it for a day and return with a fresh eye. This
will help you view your writing from the reader’s perspective.

Why is it important to write well?

If you can’t clearly, concisely, and logically communicate how you collected and analyzed your
data, it doesn’t matter how groundbreaking your research is. Readers won’t understand it and will
justifiably question your results. However, if you can clearly explain your work, it will be
understood by more people.

TOPIC # 2: SUITABLE SOURCES OF

LITERATURE AND THEIR CREDIBILITY
A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic. The literature
review surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources relevant to a particular area of research.
The review should enumerate, describe, summarize, objectively evaluate and clarify this previous
research. It should give a theoretical base for the research and help you (the author) determine the
nature of your research. The literature review acknowledges the work of previous researchers, and
in so doing, assures the reader that your work has been well conceived. It is assumed that by
mentioning a previous work in the field of study, that the author has read, evaluated, and
assimiliated that work into the work at hand.

A literature review creates a "landscape" for the reader, giving her or him a full understanding of
the developments in the field. This landscape informs the reader that the author has indeed
assimilated all (or the vast majority of) previous, significant works in the field into her or his
research.

"In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey to the reader what knowledge and ideas
have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are.

Following are a few acceptable sources for literature reviews, listed in order from what will be
considered most acceptable to less acceptable sources for your literature review assignments:

1. Peer reviewed journal articles.

2. Edited academic books.
3. Articles in professional journals.
4. Statistical data from government websites.
 5. Website material from professional associations (use sparingly and carefully). The following
sections will explain and provide examples of these various sources.

Peer reviewed journal articles (papers)

A peer reviewed journal article is a paper that has been submitted to a scholarly journal, accepted,
and published. Peer review journal papers go through a rigorous, blind review process of peer
review. What this means is that two to three experts in the area of research featured in the paper
have reviewed and accepted the paper for publication. The names of the author(s) who are seeking
to publish the research have been removed (blind review), so as to minimize any bias towards the
authors of the research (albeit, sometimes a savvy reviewer can discern who has done the research
based upon previous publications, etc.). This blind review process can be long (often 12 to 18
months) and may involve many back and forth edits on the behalf of the researchers, as they work
to address the edits and concerns of the peers who reviewed their paper. Often, reviewers will
reject the paper for a variety of reasons, such as unclear or questionable methods, lack of
contribution to the field, etc. Because peer reviewed journal articles have gone through a rigorous
process of review, they are considered to be the premier source for research. Peer reviewed journal
articles should serve as the foundation for your literature review.

The following link will provide more information on peer reviewed journal articles. Make sure
you watch the little video on the upper left-hand side of your screen, in addition to reading the
material at the following website: [Link]

Edited academic books

An edited academic book is a collection of scholarly scientific papers written by different authors.
The works are original papers, not published elsewhere (“Edited volume,” 2018). The papers
within the text also go through a process of review; however, the review is often not a blind review
because the authors have been invited to contribute to the book. Consequently, edited academic
books are fine to use for your literature review, but you also want to ensure that your literature
review contains mostly peer reviewed journal papers.

Articles in professional journals

Articles from professional journals should be used with caution for your literature review. This is
because articles in trade journals are not usually peer reviewed, even though they may appear to
be. A good way to find out is to read the “About Us” section of the professional journal, which
should state whether or not the papers are peer reviewed. You can also find out by Googling the
name of the journal and adding “peer reviewed” to the search.
Statistical data from governmental websites
Governmental websites can be excellent sources for statistical data, e.g, Statistics Canada collects
and publishes data related to the economy, society, and the environment
(see [Link]

Website material from professional associations

Material from other websites can also serve as a source for statistics that you may need for your
literature review. Since you want to justify the value of the research that interests you, you might
make use of a professional association’s website to learn how many members they have, for
example. You might want to demonstrate, as part of the introduction to your literature review, why
more research on the topic of PTSD in police officers is important. You could use peer reviewed
journal articles to determine the prevalence of PTSD in police officers in Canada in the last ten
years, and then use the Ontario Police Officers´ Association website to determine the approximate
number of police officers employed in the Province of Ontario over the last ten years. This might
help you estimate how many police officers could be suffering with PTSD in Ontario. That number
could potentially help to justify a research grant down the road. But again, this type of website-
based material should be used with caution and sparingly.

TOPIC # 3: PLAGIARISM AND AVOIDING PLAGIARISM

Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own,
with or without their consent, by incorporating it into your work
without full acknowledgement. All published and unpublished
material, whether in manuscript, printed or electronic form, is
covered under this definition. Plagiarism may be intentional or
reckless, or unintentional. Under the regulations for examinations,
intentional or reckless plagiarism is a disciplinary offence.
Students will benefit from taking an online course which has been
developed to provide a useful overview of the issues surrounding
plagiarism and practical ways to avoid it.
The necessity to acknowledge others’ work or ideas applies not only
to text, but also to other media, such as computer code, illustrations,
graphs etc. It applies equally to published text and data drawn from
books and journals, and to unpublished text and data, whether from
lectures, theses or other students’ essays. You must also attribute
text, data, or other resources downloaded from websites.

The best way of avoiding plagiarism is to learn and employ the

principles of good academic practice from the beginning of your
university career. Avoiding plagiarism is not simply a matter of
making sure your references are all correct, or changing enough
words so the examiner will not notice your paraphrase; it is about
deploying your academic skills to make your work as good as it can
be.

Forms/types of Plagiarism
Verbatim (word for word) quotation without clear acknowledgement
Quotations must always be identified as such by the use of either quotation
marks or indentation, and with full referencing of the sources cited. It must
always be apparent to the reader which parts are your own independent work
and where you have drawn on someone else’s ideas and language.
Cutting and pasting from the Internet without clear acknowledgement
Information derived from the Internet must be adequately referenced and
included in the bibliography. It is important to evaluate carefully all material
found on the Internet, as it is less likely to have been through the same
process of scholarly peer review as published sources.
Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing the work of others by altering a few words and changing their
order, or by closely following the structure of their argument, is plagiarism if
you do not give due acknowledgement to the author whose work you are
using.

A passing reference to the original author in your own text may not be
enough; you must ensure that you do not create the misleading impression
that the paraphrased wording or the sequence of ideas are entirely your own.
It is better to write a brief summary of the author’s overall argument in your
own words, indicating that you are doing so, than to paraphrase particular
sections of his or her writing. This will ensure you have a genuine grasp of the
argument and will avoid the difficulty of paraphrasing without plagiarising.
You must also properly attribute all material you derive from lectures.

Collusion
This can involve unauthorised collaboration between students, failure to
attribute assistance received, or failure to follow precisely regulations on
group work projects. It is your responsibility to ensure that you are entirely
clear about the extent of collaboration permitted, and which parts of the work
must be your own.
Inaccurate citation
It is important to cite correctly, according to the conventions of your
discipline. As well as listing your sources (i.e. in a bibliography), you must
indicate, using a footnote or an in-text reference, where a quoted passage
comes from. Additionally, you should not include anything in your references
or bibliography that you have not actually consulted. If you cannot gain
access to a primary source you must make it clear in your citation that your
knowledge of the work has been derived from a secondary text (for example,
Bradshaw, D. Title of Book, discussed in Wilson, E., Title of Book (London,
2004), p. 189).
Failure to acknowledge assistance
You must clearly acknowledge all assistance which has contributed to the
production of your work, such as advice from fellow students, laboratory
technicians, and other external sources. This need not apply to the assistance
provided by your tutor or supervisor, or to ordinary proofreading, but it is
necessary to acknowledge other guidance which leads to substantive changes
of content or approach.
Use of material written by professional agencies or other persons
You should neither make use of professional agencies in the production of
your work nor submit material which has been written for you even with the
consent of the person who has written it. It is vital to your intellectual
training and development that you should undertake the research process
unaided. Under Statute XI on University Discipline, all members of the
University are prohibited from providing material that could be submitted in
an examination by students at this University or elsewhere.
Auto-plagiarism
You must not submit work for assessment that you have already submitted
(partially or in full), either for your current course or for another qualification
of this, or any other, university, unless this is specifically provided for in the
special regulations for your course. Where earlier work by you is citable, ie. it
has already been published, you must reference it clearly. Identical pieces of
work submitted concurrently will also be considered to be auto-plagiarism.

How to avoid plagiarism?

There are many reasons to avoid plagiarism. You have come to university to
learn to know and speak your own mind, not merely to reproduce the opinions
of others - at least not without attribution. At first it may seem very difficult to
develop your own views, and you will probably find yourself paraphrasing the
writings of others as you attempt to understand and assimilate their
arguments. However it is important that you learn to develop your own voice.
You are not necessarily expected to become an original thinker, but you are
expected to be an independent one - by learning to assess critically the work of
others, weigh up differing arguments and draw your own conclusions. Students
who plagiarise undermine the ethos of academic scholarship while avoiding an
essential part of the learning process.

You should avoid plagiarism because you aspire to produce work of the highest
quality. Once you have grasped the principles of source use and citation, you
should find it relatively straightforward to steer clear of plagiarism. Moreover,
you will reap the additional benefits of improvements to both the lucidity and
quality of your writing. It is important to appreciate that mastery of the
techniques of academic writing is not merely a practical skill, but one that
lends both credibility and authority to your work, and demonstrates your
commitment to the principle of intellectual honesty in scholarship.

TOPIC # 4: THE STRUCTURE OF ACADEMIC

WRITING: TITLE; ABSTRACT;
Title

The title of your manuscript is usually the first introduction readers (and
reviewers) have to your work. Therefore, you must select a title that grabs
attention, accurately describes the contents of your manuscript, and makes
people want to read further.

An effective title should:

• Convey the main topics of the study

• Highlight the importance of the research
• Be concise
• Attract readers
Writing a good title for your manuscript can be challenging. First, list the
topics covered by the manuscript. Try to put all of the topics together in the
title using as few words as possible. A title that is too long will seem clumsy,
annoy readers, and probably not meet journal requirements.
Example:
Does Vaccinating Children and Adolescents with Inactivated Influenza Virus
Inhibit the Spread of Influenza in Unimmunized Residents of Rural
Communities?
This title has too many unnecessary words.
Influenza Vaccination of Children: A Randomized Trial
This title doesn’t give enough information about what makes the
manuscript interesting.
Effect of Child Influenza Vaccination on Infection Rates in Rural Communities: A
Randomized Trial
This is an effective title. It is short, easy to understand, and conveys the
important aspects of the research.
Think about why your research will be of interest to other scientists. This
should be related to the reason you decided to study the topic. If your title
makes this clear, it will likely attract more readers to your manuscript.
TIP: Write down a few possible titles, and then select the best to refine further.
Ask your colleagues their opinion. Spending the time needed to do this will
result in a better title.
Abstract and Keywords
The Abstract is:
• A summary of the content of the journal manuscript
• A time-saving shortcut for busy researchers
• A guide to the most important parts of your manuscript’s written
content

Abstract
Many readers will only read the Abstract of your manuscript. Therefore, it has
to be able to stand alone. In most cases the abstract is the only part of your
article that appears in indexing databases such as Web of Science or PubMed
and so will be the most accessed part of your article; making a good
impression will encourage researchers to read your full paper.
A well written abstract can also help speed up the peer-review process. During
peer review, referees are usually only sent the abstract when invited to review
the paper. Therefore, the abstract needs to contain enough information about
the paper to allow referees to make a judgement as to whether they have
enough expertise to review the paper and be engaging enough for them to
want to review it.
Your Abstract should answer these questions about your manuscript:
• What was done?
• Why did you do it?
• What did you find?
• Why are these findings useful and important?
Answering these questions lets readers know the most important points about
your study, and helps them decide whether they want to read the rest of the
paper. Make sure you follow the proper journal manuscript formatting
guidelines when preparing your abstract.
TIP: Journals often set a maximum word count for Abstracts, often 250 words,
and no citations. This is to ensure that the full Abstract appears in indexing
services.
Keywords are a tool to help indexers and search engines find relevant papers.
If database search engines can find your journal manuscript, readers will be
able to find it too. This will increase the number of people reading your
manuscript, and likely lead to more citations.
However, to be effective, Keywords must be chosen carefully. They should:
• Represent the content of your manuscript
• Be specific to your field or sub-field
Examples:
Manuscript title: Direct observation of nonlinear optics in an isolated carbon
nanotube
Poor keywords: molecule, optics, lasers, energy lifetime
Better keywords: single-molecule interaction, Kerr effect, carbon nanotubes,
energy level structure
Manuscript title: Region-specific neuronal degeneration after okadaic acid
administration
Poor keywords: neuron, brain, OA (an abbreviation), regional-specific
neuronal degeneration, signaling
Better keywords: neurodegenerative diseases; CA1 region, hippocampal;
okadaic acid; neurotoxins; MAP kinase signaling system; cell death
Manuscript title: Increases in levels of sediment transport at former glacial-
interglacial transitions
Poor keywords: climate change, erosion, plant effects
Better keywords: quaternary climate change, soil erosion, bioturbation

TOPIC # 5: THE STRUCTURE OF

ACADEMIC WRITING: LIST OF
CONTENTS, TABLES, AND FIGURES

list of contents
The table of contents is where you list the chapters and major sections of
your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, alongside their page numbers. A clear and
well-formatted table of contents is essential, as it demonstrates to your reader that a
quality paper will follow.
The table of contents (TOC) should be placed between the abstract and the
introduction. The maximum length should be two pages. Depending on the nature of
your thesis, paper, or dissertation topic, there are a few formatting options you can
choose from.

What to include in your table of contents

Depending on the length of your document, you can choose between a single-level,
subdivided, or multi-level table of contents.

• A single-level table of contents only includes “level 1” headings, or chapters. This is the
simplest option, but it may be too broad for a long document like a dissertation.
• A subdivided table of contents includes chapters as well as “level 2” headings, or
sections. These show your reader what each chapter contains.
• A multi-level table of contents also further divides sections into “level 3” headings. This
option can get messy quickly, so proceed with caution. Remember your table of contents
should not be longer than 2 pages. A multi-level table is often a good choice for a shorter
document like a research paper.

Examples of level 1 headings are Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, and

Bibliography. Subsections of each of these would be level 2 headings, further describing
the contents of each chapter or large section. Any further subsections would be level 3.

Tip: A subdivided table of contents is usually the best fit for most people. It provides a bit more context
than a single-level table, but doesn’t get as long and complicated as a multi-level table.

In these introductory sections, less is often more. As you decide which sections to
include, narrow it down to only the most essential.

Including appendices and tables

You should include all appendices in your table of contents. Whether or not you include
tables and figures depends largely on how many there are in your document.

If there are more than three figures and tables, you might consider listing them on a
separate page. Otherwise, you can include each one in the table of contents.

• Theses and dissertations often have a separate list of figures and tables.
• Research papers generally don’t have a separate list of figures and tables.

Learn more about figure and table lists.

What not to include in your table of contents

All level 1 and level 2 headings should be included in your table of contents, with level 3
headings used very sparingly.

The following things should never be included in a table of contents:

 • Your acknowledgements page
• Your abstract
• The table of contents itself

The acknowledgements and abstract always precede the table of contents, so there’s
no need to include them. This goes for any sections that precede the table of contents.

Creating a table of contents in Microsoft Word

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, be sure to first apply the
correct heading styles throughout the document, as shown below.

1. Choose which headings are heading 1 and which are heading 2 (or 3)!
2. Set the style for each heading level.
a. For example, if all level 1 headings should be Times New Roman, 12-point
font, and bold, add this formatting to the first level 1 heading.
3. Automatically apply this formatting for all your level 1 headings, using the Styles
section on the home tab.
a. Highlight the level 1 heading.
b. Right-click the style that says “Heading 1.”
c. Select “Update Heading 1 to Match Selection.”
4. Allocate the formatting for each heading throughout your document by
highlighting the heading in question and clicking the style you wish to apply.

Once that’s all set, follow these steps:

1. Add a title to your table of contents. Be sure to check if your citation style or
university has guidelines for this.
2. Place your cursor where you would like your table of contents to go.
3. In the “References” section at the top, locate the Table of Contents group.
4. Click the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon and select “Custom Table of
Contents.”
a. Here, you can select which levels of headings you would like to include.
You can also make manual adjustments to each level by clicking the
Modify button.
5. When you are ready to insert the table of contents, click “OK” and it will be
automatically generated, as shown below.

Table of contents examples

The key features of a table of contents are:

• Title
• Clear headings and subheadings
• Corresponding page numbers
Check with your educational institution to see if they have any specific formatting or
design requirements.

Updating a table of contents in Microsoft Word

Write yourself a reminder to update your table of contents as one of your final tasks
before submitting your dissertation or paper. It’s normal for your text to shift a bit as you
input your final edits, and it’s crucial that your page numbers correspond correctly.

It’s easy to update your page numbers automatically in Microsoft Word. Simply right-
click the table of contents and select “Update Field.” You can choose either to update
page numbers only or to update all information in your table of contents.

Figures and tables

Figures and tables (display items) are often the quickest way
to communicate large amounts of complex information that would be
complicated to explain in text.

Many readers will only look at your display items without reading the main
text of your manuscript. Therefore, ensure your display items can stand alone
from the text and communicate clearly your most significant results.

Display items are also important for attracting readers to your work. Well
designed and attractive display items will hold the interest of readers, compel
them to take time to understand a figure and can even entice them to read
your full manuscript.
Finally, high-quality display items give your work a professional appearance.
Readers will assume that a professional-looking manuscript contains good
quality science. Thus readers may be more likely to trust your results and your
interpretation of those results.
When deciding which of your results to present as display items consider the
following questions:
• Are there any data that readers might rather see as a display item rather
than text?
 • Do your figures supplement the text and not just repeat what you have
already stated?
• Have you put data into a table that could easily be explained in the text
such as simple statistics or p values?
Tables
Tables are a concise and effective way to present large amounts of data. You
should design them carefully so that you clearly communicate your results to
busy researchers.
The following is an example of a well-designed table:
• Clear and concise legend/caption
• Data divided into categories for clarity
• Sufficient spacing between columns and rows
• Units are provided
• Font type and size are legible

Figures
Figures are ideal for presenting:
• Images
• Data plots
• Maps
• Schematics
Just like tables all figures need to have a clear and concise legend caption to
accompany them.
Images
Images help readers visualize the information you are trying to convey. Often,
it is difficult to be sufficiently descriptive using words. Images can help in
achieving the accuracy needed for a scientific manuscript. For example, it may
not be enough to say, “The surface had nanometer scale features.” In this case,
it would be ideal to provide a microscope image.
For images, be sure to:
• Include scale bars
• Consider labeling important items
• Indicate the meaning of different colours and symbols used
Data plots
Data plots convey large quantities of data quickly. The goal is often to show a
functional or statistical relationship between two or more items. However,
details about the individual data points are often omitted to place emphasis
on the relationship that is shown by the collection of points. Here, we have
examples of figures combining images and a plots in multiple panels.
For data plots, be sure to:
• Label all axes
• Specify units for quantities
• Label all curves and data sets
• Use a legible font size
Maps
Maps are important for putting field work in the context of the location where
it was performed. A good map will help your reader understand how the site
affects your study. Moreover, it will help other researchers reproduce your
work or find other locations with similar properties. Here, we have a map used
in a study about salmon.
For maps, be sure to:
• Include latitude and longitude
• Include scale bars
• Label important items
• Consider adding a map legend

TOPIC # 6: INTRODUCTION
Follow the following link for reading material
10 tips for writing an effective introduction to original research papers ([Link])

TIPS FOR WRITING AN EFFECTIVE INTRODUCTION TO ORIGINAL RESEARCH

PAPERS
After the title and abstract, the introduction is the next thing your audience will read, so it's vital to
begin strongly. The introduction is your opportunity to show readers and reviewers why your research
topic is worth reading about and why your paper warrants their attention.
The introduction serves multiple purposes. It presents the background to your study, introduces your
topic and aims, and gives an overview of the paper. A good introduction will provide a solid
foundation and encourage readers to continue on to the main parts of your paper—the methods,
results, and discussion.

In this article, we present 10 tips for writing an effective introduction. These tips apply primarily to full
papers and letters reporting original research results. Although some tips will be more suited to
papers in certain fields, the points are broadly applicable.

1. Start broadly and then narrow down

In the first paragraph, briefly describe the broad research area and then narrow down to your
particular focus. This will help position your research topic within the broader field, making the work
accessible to a broader audience, not just to specialists in your field.

2. State the aims and importance

Papers rejected for "not showing the importance of the topic" or "lacking clear motivation" usually
neglect this point. Say what you want to achieve and why your reader should be interested in finding
out whether you achieve it. The basic structure can be as simple as "We aim to do X, which is
important because it will lead to Y."

3. Cite thoroughly but not excessively

Once you've narrowed your focus to the specific topic of your study, you should thoroughly cover the
most recent and most relevant literature pertaining to your study. Your review of the literature should
be complete, but not overly long—remember, you're not writing a review article. If you find that your
introduction is too long or overflowing with citations, one possible solution is to cite review articles,
rather than all the individual articles that have already been summarized in the review.

4. Avoid giving too many citations for one point

Consider the following sentence: "Many studies have found a significant association between X and Y
[4-15]." This sentence cites too many studies at once. Although references [4-15] might provide a good
overview of the topic, this sentence doesn't provide enough context or explanation for these past
studies. If all of these references are worth citing, they should be discussed in greater specificity. For
example, "A significant association has been found between X and Y in men [4-7], women [8-11], and
children [12-15]."

5. Clearly state either your hypothesis or research question

For research in empirical sciences, stating a hypothesis can be an effective way of framing the
research. For example, instead of stating "In this study, we show that X is related to Y by method A,"
you could say, "In this study, we hypothesize that X is related to Y, and we use method A to test this
hypothesis." For research in formal sciences or exploratory research, you could consider stating a
research question instead: "In this study, we examine the following research question: Is X related to
Y?" Note that the research question doesn't always have to be stated in the interrogative form (with a
question mark); instead, you can put the question into a declarative sentence: "In this study, we
investigate whether X is related to Y." Hypotheses and research questions are effective because they
help give shape to the paper and serve as "signpost phrases" that guide readers through your paper
smoothly.

6. Consider giving an overview of the paper

An organizational overview is more common in some fields than others. It is particularly common in
technology, but less so in medicine. In the last paragraph of your introduction, consider giving a section-
by-section overview of your paper if it is appropriate for your field. For example, "In Section II, we
describe our analysis methods and the datasets we used. In Section III we present the results. In Section
IV, we discuss the results and compare our findings with those in the literature. In Section V, we state
our conclusions and suggest possible topics for future research."

7. Keep it short

Try to avoid an overly long introduction. A good target is 500 to 1000 words, although checking the
journal's guidelines and past issues will provide the clearest guidance.

8. Show, don't tell

One goal of the introduction is explaining why your research topic is worthy of study. One of the most
common pitfalls is to simply say, "Subject X is important." Instead of simply saying that the topic is
important, show why the topic is important. For example, instead of writing "The development of new
materials is important for the automotive industry," you could write, "The development of new
materials is necessary for the automotive industry to produce stronger, lighter vehicles, which will
improve safety and fuel economy."

9. Don't bury your readers in detail

In the introduction, if your paper is in a field that commonly summarizes the study's main results before
starting the methods, you should avoid stating too many detailed results because these results need the
development in the other sections of your paper to be properly understood. Instead of saying "We find
that our algorithm requires 55% of the memory and 45% of the computation time of the conventional
algorithm," it is usually better to give a general overview of the findings in the introduction: "Here we
compare the proposed algorithm with a conventional algorithm in terms of memory use and
computational speed, showing that the proposed algorithm is both smaller and faster." Some older style
guides suggest holding back the main result to build suspense, but now journals in many fields—medicine
being a notable exception—encourage giving a preview of your main results in the introduction.

10. Check the journal requirements

Many journals have specific requirements for the introduction in their guidelines for authors. For
example, there might be a maximum word count stated or the guidelines might require specific content,
such as a hypothesis statement or a summary of your main results.

Concluding remarks

I would like to close with one last piece of advice: When you begin drafting a paper, the introduction
should be one of the first things you plan. The introduction serves as the roadmap for your paper; by
clearly stating the study's background, aims, and hypothesis/research question, the introduction can
guide you as you write the rest of the paper. It's such an important section—setting the scene for
everything that follows—that many authors write the methods, results, and discussion sections in full
before completing the introduction.

I hope these tips help you to write effective introductions that capture the attention of readers and
reviewers. If you're interested in more writing tips, check out our 10 Tips for Writing an Effective Abstract.
Also, through our EditingPLUS service, you can get writing tips and advice about your specific manuscript
from a specialist editor.

TOPIC # 7: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Learn how to write a review of literature – The Writing Center – UW–Madison ([Link])

What is a review of literature?

The format of a review of literature may vary from discipline to discipline and from
assignment to assignment.
A review may be a self-contained unit — an end in itself — or a preface to and rationale
for engaging in primary research. A review is a required part of grant and research
proposals and often a chapter in theses and dissertations.

Generally, the purpose of a review is to analyze critically a segment of a published body

of knowledge through summary, classification, and comparison of prior research
studies, reviews of literature, and theoretical articles.

Writing the introduction

In the introduction, you should:

Define or identify the general topic, issue, or area of concern, thus providing an
appropriate context for reviewing the literature.

Point out overall trends in what has been published about the topic; or conflicts in
theory, methodology, evidence, and conclusions; or gaps in research and scholarship; or
a single problem or new perspective of immediate interest.

Establish the writer’s reason (point of view) for reviewing the literature; explain the
criteria to be used in analyzing and comparing literature and the organization of the
review (sequence); and, when necessary, state why certain literature is or is not included
(scope).

Writing the body

In the body, you should:

Group research studies and other types of literature (reviews, theoretical articles, case
studies, etc.) according to common denominators such as qualitative versus quantitative
approaches, conclusions of authors, specific purpose or objective, chronology, etc.

Summarize individual studies or articles with as much or as little detail as each merits
according to its comparative importance in the literature, remembering that space
(length) denotes significance.

Provide the reader with strong “umbrella” sentences at beginnings of paragraphs,

“signposts” throughout, and brief “so what” summary sentences at intermediate points
in the review to aid in understanding comparisons and analyses.

Writing the conclusion

In the conclusion, you should:
Summarize major contributions of significant studies and articles to the body of
knowledge under review, maintaining the focus established in the introduction.

Evaluate the current “state of the art” for the body of knowledge reviewed, pointing out
major methodological flaws or gaps in research, inconsistencies in theory and findings,
and areas or issues pertinent to future study.

Conclude by providing some insight into the relationship between the central topic of
the literature review and a larger area of study such as a discipline, a scientific endeavor,
or a profession.