MF9211 ADVANCED MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY

UNIT IV
MODERN METALLIC MATERIALS
SYLLABUS.

Dual phase steels, High strength low alloy (HSLA) steel, Transformation induced plasticity
(TRIP) Steel, Maraging steel, Nitrogen steel – Intermetallics, Ni and Ti aluminides – smart
materials, shape memory alloys – Metallic glass and nano crystalline materials.

High-strength low-alloy steel

High-strength low-alloy steel (HSLA) is a type of alloy steel that provides better mechanical
properties or greater resistance to corrosion than carbon steel. HSLA steels vary from other steels
in that they are not made to meet a specific chemical composition but rather to specific
mechanical properties. They have a carbon content between 0.05–0.25% to retain formability
and weldability. Other alloying elements include up to 2.0% manganese and small quantities of
copper, nickel, niobium, nitrogen, vanadium, chromium, molybdenum, titanium, calcium, rare
earth elements, or zirconium.[1][2] Copper, titanium, vanadium, and niobium are added for
strengthening purposes.[2] These elements are intended to alter the microstructure of carbon
steels, which is usually a ferrite-pearlite aggregate, to produce a very fine dispersion of alloy
carbides in an almost pure ferrite matrix. This eliminates the toughness-reducing effect of a
pearlitic volume fraction yet maintains and increases the material's strength by refining the grain
size, which in the case of ferrite increases yield strength by 50% for every halving of the mean
grain diameter. Precipitation strengthening plays a minor role, too. Their yield strengths can be
anywhere between 250–590 megapascals (36,000–86,000 psi). Because of their higher strength
and toughness HSLA steels usually require 25 to 30% more power to form, as compared to
carbon steels.[2]

Copper, silicon, nickel, chromium, and phosphorus are added to increase corrosion resistance.
Zirconium, calcium, and rare earth elements are added for sulfide-inclusion shape control which
increases formability. These are needed because most HSLA steels have directionally sensitive
properties. Formability and impact strength can vary significantly when tested longitudinally and
transversely to the grain. Bends that are parallel to the longitudinal grain are more likely to crack
around the outer edge because it experiences tensile loads. This directional characteristic is
substantially reduced in HSLA steels that have been treated for sulfide shape control. [2]

They are used in cars, trucks, cranes, bridges, roller coasters and other structures that are
designed to handle large amounts of stress or need a good strength-to-weight ratio.[2] HSLA
steels are usually 20 to 30% lighter than a carbon steel with the same strength. [3][4]

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HSLA steels are also more resistant to rust than most carbon steels because of their lack of
pearlite – the fine layers of ferrite (almost pure iron) and cementite in pearlite. [citation needed] HSLA
steels usually have densities of around 7800 kg/m³. [5]

Classifications
 Weathering steels: steels which have better corrosion resistance. A common example is
COR-TEN.
 Control-rolled steels: hot rolled steels which have a highly deformed austenite structure
that will transform to a very fine equiaxed ferrite structure upon cooling.
 Pearlite-reduced steels: low carbon content steels which lead to little or no pearlite, but
rather a very fine grain ferrite matrix. It is strengthened by precipitation hardening.
 Acicular ferrite steels: These steels are characterized by a very fine high strength
acicular ferrite structure, a very low carbon content, and good hardenability.
 Dual-phase steels: These steels have a ferrite microstruture that contain small, uniformly
distributed sections of martensite. This microstructure gives the steels a low yield
strength, high rate of work hardening, and good formability. [1]
 Microalloyed steels: steels which contain very small additions of niobium, vanadium,
and/or titanium to obtain a refined grain size and/or precipitation hardening.

A common type of micro-alloyed steel is improved-formability HSLA. It has a yield strength up

to 80,000 psi (550 MPa) but only costs 24% more than A36 steel (36,000 psi (250 MPa)). One of
the disadvantages of this steel is that it is 30 to 40% less ductile. In the U.S., these steels are
dictated by the ASTM standards A1008/A1008M and A1011/A1011M for sheet metal and
A656/A656M for plates. These steels were developed for the automotive industry to reduce
weight without losing strength. Examples of uses include door-intrusion beams, chassis
members, reinforcing and mounting brackets, steering and suspension parts, bumpers, and
wheels.[2][6]

Transformation Induced Plasticity "TRIP"

Steel
Introduction

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Fig 1: Effect of cold work on the strength and ductility of a typical metal

Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel, is a type of steel alloy which exhibits excellent
strength and ductility. Transformation induced plasticity refers to the transformation of retained
austeniteW to martensiteW during plastic deformation. This property allows TRIP steels to have a
high formability, while retaining excellent strength. In the processing of metals, there is
generally a compromise that must be made between strength and ductility. [1] This is
demonstrated by the graph in Figure 1, which shows the compromise between strength and
ductility during cold work. The advantage of TRIP steels is that they have much higher ductility
than other steels with similar strength. [2] The ductility and strength of TRIP steels make them an
excellent candidate for automotive applications. Indeed, structural components can be made
thinner because TRIP steels have the ductility necessary to withstand high deformation processes
such as stamping, as well as the strength and energy absorption characteristics to meet safety
regulations.

Underlying materials science principles

TRIP Steel Composition

Fig 2: Diagram of the grain structure for a typical TRIP steel

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Fig 3: SEM micrograph showing the typical grain structure of a TRIP steel[3]

Trip steels are hypoeutectoid iron carbon alloys which typically contain 0.1 – 0.4 % carbon by
weight. TRIP steels also contain alloying elements which prevent the precipitation of the high
carbon cementiteW phase which is present in typical steels at room temperature. This raises the
carbon concentration of the austenite phase, which becomes stable at room temperature. Silicon
and Aluminium are the two most common elements used to stabilize the austenite phase at room
temperature.[4] Other alloying elements such as titanium, niobium, vanadium…ect. can also be
added to improve the strength of the alloy.

Processing method

Fig 4: Iron carbon phase diagram showing the intercritical anealing process

Fig 5: Diagram showing the carbon concentration in the bainitic ferrite phase and the austenite
phase

In order to produce a strong and ductile TRIP steel, an intercritical annealing process is used to
obtain the correct phase distribution. [5] During intercritical annealing, the steel is brought to a
temperature above the eutectoidW, where the material is composed of a solid austenite phase and
a solid ferrite phase. The austenite phase is a high temperature solid phase which only exists in
equilibrium at temperatures above 727 degrees Celsius. [6] The material is then isothermally
cooled at a temperature of approximately 400 degrees Celsius, [4] in order to allow the austenite to
form a banitic ferrite phase. During the eutectoid transformation, excess carbon is produced by
the formation of the low carbon ferrite phase. In a typical steel alloy, the excess carbon would
form a high carbon cementite phase. However, the silicon and aluminium prevent the formation
of cementite. In consequence, the excess carbon diffuses to the remaining austenite phase. In
order to obtain the correct microstructure, it is important that the isothermal transformation be
completed at a temperature where the formation of bainitic ferrite is slow enough to allow the
carbon to diffuse to the austenite. The carbon enriched austenite phase eventually reaches a high
enough carbon content that it is stable at room temperature. [7] The result of the intercritical
annealing process is a material composed primarily of ferrite, and bainiteW formed from the
austenite phase during intercritical annealing, as well as dispersed retained austenite, and
martensite phases. The grain microstructure can be seen in Figure 2 which shows a schematic of
the phases, and Figure 3 which shows a micrograph taken with a scanning electron microscopeW.
Figure 4 depicts the intercritical annealing process on the iron phase diagram. Figure 5

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demonstrates the carbon concentration of the ferrite and austenite phases during the intercritical
annealing process.

The “TRIP” effect

The transformation induced plasticity phenomenon occurs when the retained austenite transforms
to martensite during plastic deformation. [1] The transformation of retained austenite produces a
high carbon martensite phase which is very brittle. However, the retained austenite is very finely
dispersed in the ferrite phase. This fine dispersion allows TRIP steels to retain their strength. The
transformation of austenite into martesite is almost instantaneous and completely diffusionless. [6]
In TRIP steels, plastic deformation forms matensite nucleation sites in microscopic areas seeing
large deformations.[8] These nucleation sites trigger the formation of the martensite phase. The
nucleation areas are known as shear bands, where crystallographic defectsW such as twins or
stacking fault bundles are located.

Material Properties of TRIP Steels

Fig 6: Typical engineering stress-strain curve for TRIP steels

A typical engineering stress-strain curve for TRIP steels is shown in Figure 6. As can be seen,
TRIP steels have a large amount of work hardening. The high work hardening can be attributed
to the TRIP effect, as well as the fact that TRIP steels are primarily composed of soft ferrite and
hard bainite. This "dual phase" nature allows for local deformation of the ferrite phase while
maintaining a high tensile strength. Indeed, their tensile strengthW is typically twice the value of
their yield strengthW. [2] This means that TRIP steels also exhibit very stable work hardening,
where the onset of necking occurs at relatively high elongation values (over 25%). This makes
TRIP steels ideal for forming operations such as stamping or bending. Forming operations are
often limited by the loss of strength of the component due to wall thinning, or rupture because
the material reached its forming limit. TRIP steels are ideal for such operations because they
have a high formability limit and have stable yield point elongation which increases the
structural integrity of formed components.

Improving the performance of TRIP steels

Improving the galvanized surface finish of TRIP steels
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Hot-dip galvanizingW is a widely used surface treatment for steels. During the process, molten
zinc bonds with the iron to form a layer which protects against corrosion. Original TRIP steels
only contained silicon as the alloying element used to suppress the formation of the cementite
phase. The content of silicon in these alloys was approximately 1.5 % by weight. This relatively
high silicon content formed silicon oxide at the surface of the steel prior to the galvanizing
process. [9] This oxide severely degraded the properties of the galvanized surface coating. [4]
Newer TRIP steels have partially or completely replaced silicon with aluminium as an alloying
component. The aluminium plays the same role as the silicon, but does not have negative effects
on the surface finish during galvanizing. Therefore, the silicon content can be reduced while
maintaining the TRIP properties of the steel.

High strength micro-alloying of TRIP steels

Basic TRIP steels have a tensile strength of approximately 600 MPa. However, by varying the
alloy content, TRIP steels can have tensile strengths above 800 MPa. This was first
accomplished by raising the carbon content of the alloy to approximately 0.4 % by weight. [1]
However, this high carbon content leads to poor weldability. As well, the retained austenite
becomes more stable due to the increased carbon content, which diminishes the formability of
the TRIP steel. Instead of increasing the carbon content, alloying elements such as titanium,
niobium, and vanadium can be used to give TRIP steels added tensile strength. [1] These alloying
elements increase the strength of the steel through precipitation hardeningW, while having a
minimal effect on weldability and formability.

Improving fuel efficiency of automobiles

TRIP steels are an ideal choice for structural materials in automobiles. They have the ductility
and stable work hardening necessary to withstand high deformation processes such as stamping.
As well, their high tensile strength makes them ideal for highly stressed components. Finally,
they have excellent energy absorption properties because of their ductility and strength, which
can improve vehicle safety during a crash. Because of these beneficial properties, TRIP steels
could be used in smaller quantities to replace current steel components. This is known as "down-
gauging", where thinner sheets of steel are used to form components.

Weight reduction estimate

Approximately 55 percent of the mass of an average passenger car is made of steel. [10] It has
been shown that the volume of a mild steel formed sheet can be reduced by 20 percent by using
TRIP steel, while maintaining the same stiffness. [11] Therefore, it can be assumed that the use of
TRIP steel could reduce the mass of steel on a vehicle by 20 percent, and the total vehicle mass
by 11 percent.

Effect of weight reduction on fuel efficiency

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The percentage of consumed fuel that goes directly into recovering inertial losses from braking is
5.8 percent. [12] The weight savings from using TRIP steel would reduce the amount of inertial
losses by 11 percent, because kinetic energy is directly proportional to mass. This means that
using TRIP steels could lead to a reduction in total fuel consumption of 0.64 percent.

Magnitude of effect on a global scale

If we assume that an average passenger vehicle consumes 10L/100km (23.5 mpg), and that an
average car travels 20 000 km (12500 miles) in one year, the weight savings translate to an
annual fuel consumption reduction of 12.8 liters (3.33 gallons). In 2007, there were 136 billion
passenger cars in the United States. [13] This means that using TRIP steels in vehicle fabrication
has the potential to reduce fuel consumption by 1.74 billion liters (460 million gallons). This
represents a carbon dioxide emissions reduction of 4.18 billion kg (1.9 billion lbs), which is a
reduction of 0.07% of the total United States carbon dioxide emissions. [14]

Economics of TRIP steels

Steel is commonly used because of its strength, formability and low cost relative to other metals.
Metals such as titanium, magnesium, and aluminum have a higher strength to weight ratio and
could offer significant weight savings in automobile components. However, they are much more
expensive due to their lower abundance, higher production costs, and higher machining costs. As
well, worldwide supply of these metals is fairly limited. These factors prevent these metals from
being commonly used in low end production cars, which the majority of the population drives.
TRIP steels do not face any of these difficulties, because they are a low alloy steel. Implementing
the intercritical annealing step in steel processing should not prove to be difficult. This means
that TRIP steels could be produced for the same price as other high strength steels. The most
important barrier TRIP steels have faced in their market integration is the poor galvanizing
surface finish. The galvanizing process is used on a large number of automotive components,
because it is easy, inexpensive, and effective. With the recent discovery of aluminium as a
replacement for silicon, TRIP steels no longer face past difficulties with galvanizing. TRIP steels
can now be effectively protected from corrosion in an economically viable way, which means we
may be seeing commercial production of TRIP steel products in the near future.

Transformation-Induced Plasticity (TRIP)

Steel
The microstructure of TRIP steels is
retained austenite embedded in a
primary matrix of ferrite. In addition to
a minimum of five volume percent of
retained austenite, hard phases such as

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martensite and bainite are present in varying amounts. TRIP steels typically require the use of an
isothermal hold at an intermediate temperature, which produces some bainite. The higher silicon
and carbon content of TRIP steels also result in significant volume fractions of retained austenite
in the final microstructure. Figure 1-4 shows a schematic of TRIP steel microstructure.

During deformation, the dispersion of hard second phases in soft ferrite creates a high work
hardening rate, as observed in the DP steels. However, in TRIP steels the retained austenite also
progressively transforms to martensite with increasing strain, thereby increasing the work
hardening rate at higher strain levels. This is illustrated in Figure 1-5, where the engineering
stress-strain behaviour of HSLA, DP and TRIP steels of approximately similar yield strengths
are compared. The TRIP steel has a lower initial work hardening rate than the DP steel, but the
hardening rate persists at higher strains where work hardening of the DP begins to diminish.
Additional engineering and true stress-strain curves for TRIP steel grades are located in AHSS
Application Guidelines Image Gallery, Figure 2-9C.

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The work hardening rates of TRIP steels are substantially higher than for conventional HSS,
providing significant stretch forming. This is particularly useful when designers take advantage
of the high work hardening rate (and increased bake hardening effect) to design a part utilizing
the as-formed mechanical properties. The high work hardening rate persists to higher strains in
TRIP steels, providing a slight advantage over DP in the most severe stretch forming
applications.

TRIP steels use higher quantities of carbon than DP steels to obtain sufficient carbon content for
stabilizing the retained austenite phase to below ambient temperature. Higher contents of silicon
and/or aluminium accelerate the ferrite/bainite formation. Thus, these elements assist in
maintaining the necessary carbon content within the retained austenite. Suppressing the carbide
precipitation during bainitic transformation appears to be crucial for TRIP steels. Silicon and
aluminium are used to avoid carbide precipitation in the bainite region.

The strain level at which retained austenite begins to transform to martensite is controlled by
adjusting the carbon content. At lower carbon levels, the retained austenite begins to transform
almost immediately upon deformation, increasing the work hardening rate and formability during
the stamping process. At higher carbon contents, the retained austenite is more stable and begins
to transform only at strain levels beyond those produced during forming. At these carbon levels,
the retained austenite persists into the final part. It transforms to martensite during subsequent
deformation, such as a crash event.

TRIP steels therefore can be engineered or tailored to provide excellent formability for
manufacturing complex AHSS parts or exhibit high work hardening during crash deformation for
excellent crash energy absorption. The additional alloying requirements of TRIP steels degrade
their resistance spot-welding behaviour. This can be addressed somewhat by modification of the
welding cycles used (for example, pulsating welding or dilution welding).

Maraging steel
Maraging steels (a portmanteau of "martensitic" and "aging") are steels (iron alloys) which are
known for possessing superior strength and toughness without losing malleability, although they
cannot hold a good cutting edge. Aging refers to the extended heat-treatment process. These
steels are a special class of low-carbon ultra-high-strength steels which derive their strength not
from carbon, but from precipitation of inter-metallic compounds. The principal alloying element
is 15 to 25 wt.% nickel.[1] Secondary alloying elements are added to produce intermetallic
precipitates, which include cobalt, molybdenum, and titanium.[1] Original development was
carried out on 20 and 25 wt.% Ni steels to which small additions of Al, Ti, and Nb were made.

The common, non-stainless grades contain 17–19 wt.% nickel, 8–12 wt.% cobalt, 3–5 wt.%
molybdenum, and 0.2–1.6 wt.% titanium. Addition of chromium produces stainless grades

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resistant to corrosion. This also indirectly increases hardenability as they require less nickel:
high-chromium, high-nickel steels are generally austenitic and unable to transform to martensite
when heat treated, while lower-nickel steels can transform to martensite. Alternative variants of
Ni-reduced maraging steels are based on alloys of Fe and Mn plus minor additions of Al, Ni, and
Ti where compositions between Fe-9wt.% Mn to Fe-15wt.% Mn have been used. The Mn has a
similar effect as Ni, i.e. it stabilizes the austenite phase. Hence, depending on their Mn content,
Fe-Mn maraging steels can be fully martensitic after quenching them from the high temperature
austenite phase or they can contain retained austenite. The latter effect enables the design of
maraging-TRIP steels where TRIP stands for Transformation-Induced-Plasticity. [2]

Properties
Due to the low carbon content maraging steels have good machinability. Prior to aging, they may
also be cold rolled to as much as 80–90% without cracking. Maraging steels offer good
weldability, but must be aged afterward to restore the properties of heat affected zone.[1]

When heat-treated the alloy has very little dimensional change, so it is often machined to its final
dimensions. Due to the high alloy content maraging steels have a high hardenability. Since
ductile FeNi martensites are formed upon cooling, cracks are non-existent or negligible. The
steels can be nitrided to increase case hardness, and polished to a fine surface finish.

Non-stainless varieties of maraging steel are moderately corrosion-resistant, and resist stress
corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement. Corrosion-resistance can be increased by cadmium
plating or phosphating.

Heat treatment cycle

The steel is first annealed at approximately 820 °C (1,510 °F) for 15–30 minutes for thin sections
and for 1 hour per 25 mm thickness for heavy sections, to ensure formation of a fully
austenitized structure. This is followed by air cooling to room temperature to form a soft,
heavily-dislocated iron-nickel lath (untwinned) martensite. Subsequent aging (precipitation
hardening) of the more common alloys for approximately 3 hours at a temperature of 480 to 500
°C produces a fine dispersion of Ni3(X,Y) intermetallic phases along dislocations left by
martensitic transformation, where X and Y are solute elements added for such precipitation.
Overaging leads to a reduction in stability of the primary, metastable, coherent precipitates,
leading to their dissolution and replacement with semi-coherent Laves phases such as
Fe2Ni/Fe2Mo. Further excessive heat-treatment brings about the decomposition of the martensite
and reversion to austenite.

Newer compositions of maraging steels have revealed other intermetallic stoichiometries and
crystallographic relationships with the parent martensite, including rhombohedral and massive
complex Ni50(X,Y,Z)50 (Ni50M50 in simplified notation).

Uses

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Maraging steel's strength and malleability in the pre-aged stage allows it to be formed into
thinner rocket and missile skins than other steels, reducing weight for a given strength. [3]
Maraging steels have very stable properties, and, even after overaging due to excessive
temperature, only soften slightly. These alloys retain their properties at mildly elevated operating
temperatures and have maximum service temperatures of over 400 °C (752 °F). [citation needed] They
are suitable for engine components, such as crankshafts and gears, and the firing pins of
automatic weapons that cycle from hot to cool repeatedly while under substantial load. Their
uniform expansion and easy machinability before aging make maraging steel useful in high-wear
components of assembly lines and dies. Other ultra-high-strength steels, such as AerMet alloys,
are not as machinable because of their carbide content.

In the sport of fencing, blades used in competitions run under the auspices of the Fédération
Internationale d'Escrime are usually made with maraging steel. Maraging blades are superior for
foil and épée because crack propagation in maraging steel is 10 times slower than in carbon steel,
resulting in less blade breakage and fewer injuries. [4][5] Stainless maraging steel is used in bicycle
frames and golf club heads. It is also used in surgical components and hypodermic syringes, but
is not suitable for scalpel blades because the lack of carbon prevents it from holding a good
cutting edge.

Maraging steel production, import, and export by certain states, such as the United States, [6] is
closely monitored by international authorities because it is particularly suited for use in gas
centrifuges for uranium enrichment; lack of maraging steel significantly hampers this process.
Older centrifuges used aluminum tubes; modern ones, carbon fiber composite.

Physical properties
 Density: 8.1 g/cm³ (0.29 lb/in³)
 Specific heat, mean for 0–100 °C (32–212 °F): 813 J/(kg·K) (0.108 Btu/(lb·°F))
 Melting point: 2575 °F, 1413 °C
 Thermal conductivity: 25.5 W·m/(m²·K)
 Mean coefficient of thermal expansion: 11.3×10−6
 Yield tensile strength: typically 1030–2420 MPa (150,000–350,000 psi)[7]
 Ultimate tensile strength: typically 1600–2500 MPa (230,000–360,000 psi). Grades exist
up to 3500 MPa (500,000 psi)
 Elongation at break: up to 15%
 KIC fracture toughness: up to 175 MPa-m½
 Young's modulus: 210 GPa[8]
 Shear modulus: 77 GPa
 Bulk modulus: 140 GPa
 Hardness (aged): 50 HRC (grade 250); 54 HRC (grade 300); 58 HRC (grade 350) [citation
needed]

Maraging Steels
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Maraging steels are carbon free iron-nickel alloys with additions of cobalt, molybdenum,
titanium and aluminium. The term maraging is derived from the strengthening mechanism,
which is transforming the alloy to martensite with subsequent age hardening.

Table 1 summarizes the alloy content of the 18% nickel – cobalt - molybdenum family as
developed by Inco in the late 1950s.

Air cooling the alloy to room temperature from 820°C creates a soft iron nickel martensite,
which contains molybdenum and cobalt in supersaturated solid solution. Tempering at 480 to
500°C results in strong hardening due to the precipitation of a number of intermetallic phases,
including, nickel-molybdenum, iron-molybdenum and iron-nickel varieties.

Maraging Steels

Yield Strength % Alloy content

Type (0,2% proof stress)
(MPa) Ni Co Mo Ti Al

18Ni1400 1400 18 8.5 3 0.2 0.1

18Ni1700 1700 18 8 5 0.4 0.1

18Ni1900 1900 18 9 5 0.6 0.1

18Ni2400 2400 17.5 12.5 3.75 1.8 0.15

17Ni1600 (cast) 1600 17 10 4.6 0.3 0.05

Table 1: Summary of the alloy content of the 18% nickel – cobalt - molybdenum family

With yield strength between 1400 and 2400 MPa maraging steels belong to the category of ultra-
high-strength materials. The high strength is combined with excellent toughness properties and
weldability.

Typical applications areas include:

 aerospace, e.g. undercarriage parts and wing fittings,

 tooling & machinery , e.g. extrusion press rams and mandrels in tube production, gears
 Ordnance components and fasteners.

Properties of Maraging Steels

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 Abstract:

The 18% Ni-maraging steels, which belong to the

family of iron-base alloys, are strengthened by a
process of martensitic transformation, followed by age
or precipitation hardening. Precipitation hardenable
stainless steels are also in this group. Maraging steels
work well in electro-mechanical components where
ultra-high strength is required, along with good
dimensional stability during heat treatment.

The 18% Ni-maraging steels, which belong to the family of iron-base

alloys, are strengthened by a process of martensitic transformation,
followed by age or precipitation hardening. Precipitation hardenable
stainless steels are also in this group.

Maraging steels work well in electro-mechanical components where

ultra-high strength is required, along with good dimensional stability
during heat treatment. Several desirable properties of maraging steels
are:

 Ultra-high strength at room temperature

 Simple heat treatment, which results in minimum distortion
 Superior fracture toughness compared to quenched and
tempered steel of similar strength level
 Low carbon content, which precludes decarburization problems
 Section size is an important factor in the hardening process
 Easily fabricated
 Good weldability.

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These factors indicate that maraging steels could be used in
applications such as shafts, and substitute for long, thin, carburized or
nitrided parts, and components subject to impact fatigue, such as print
hammers or clutches.

Tempering of maraging steels

Tempering as an operation of heat treatment has been well known
from the Middle Ages. It is used with martensite-quenched alloys. The
processes of tempering will be considered here for steels only, sinse
steels constitute an overwhelming majority of all marensite-
hardenable alloys.

Maraging steels are carbonless Fe-Ni alloys additionally alloyed with

cobalt, molybdenum, titanium and some other elements. A typical
example is an iron alloy with 17-19% Ni, 7-9% Co, 4.5-5% Mo and
0.6-0.9% Ti. Alloys of this type are hardened to martensite and then
tempered at 480-500‹C. The tempering results in strong precipitation
hardening owing to the precipitation of intermetallics from the
martensite, which is supersaturated with the alloying elements. By
analogy with the precipitation hardening in aluminum, copper and other
non-ferrous alloys, this process has been termed ageing, and since the
initial structure is martensite, the steels have been called maraging.

The structure of commercial maraging steels at the stage of maximum

hardening can contain partially coherent precipitates of intermediate
metastable phases Ni3Mo and Ni3Ti. Ni3Ti phase is similar to hexagonal
fA-carbide in carbon steels. Of special practical value is the fact that
particles of intermediate intermetallics in maraging steels are extremely
disperse, which is mainly due to their precipitation at dislocations.

The structure of maraging steels has a high density of dislocations,

which appear on martensitic rearrangement of the lattice. In lath
(untwined) martensite, the density of dislocations is of an order of 10 11-
1012 cm-2, i.e. the same as in a strongly strain-hardened metal. In that
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respect the substructure of maraging steel (as hardened) differs
appreciably from that of aluminum, copper and other alloys which can
be quenched without polymorphic change.

It is assumed that the precipitation of intermediate phases on tempering

of maraging steels is preceded with segregation of atoms of alloying
elements at dislocations. The atmospheres formed at dislocations serve
as centers for the subsequent concentration stratification of the
martensite, which is supersaturated with alloying elements.

In maraging steels the dislocation structure that forms in the course of

martensitic transformation, is very stable during the subsequent heating
and practically remains unchanged at the optimum temperatures of
tempering (480-500‹C). Such a high density of dislocations during the
whole course of tempering may be due to an appreciable extent, to
dislocation pinning by disperse precipitates.

A long holding in tempering at a higher temperature (550‹C or more)

may coarsen the precipitates and increase the interparticle spacing, with
the dislocation density being simultaneously reduced. With a long
holding time, semi coherent precipitates of intermediate intermetallics
are replaced with coarser incoherent precipitates of stable phases such
as Fe2Ni or Fe2Mo.

At increased temperatures of tempering (above 500‹C), maraging

steels may undergo the reverse f?•¨fÁ martensitic transformation, since
the as point is very close to the optimum temperatures of tempering.
The formation of austenite is then accompanied with the dissolution of
the intermetallics that have precipitated from the f?-phase.

Variations of Properties in Maraging Steels

The dependence of mechanical properties of maraging steels on the
temperature of tempering is of the same pattern as that for all
precipitation-hardenable alloys, i.e. the strength properties increase to
a maximum, after which softening takes place. By analogy with ageing,

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the stages of hardening and softening tempering may be separated in
the process.

The hardening effect is caused by the formation of segregates at

dislocations and, what is most important, by the formation of partially
coherent precipitates of intermediate phases of the type Ni3Ti or Ni3Mo.
The softening is due, in the first place, to replacement of disperse
precipitates having greater interparticle spacing and, in the second
place, to the reverse f?•¨fÁ martensitic transformation which is
accompanied by the dissolution of intermetallics in the austenite.

The ultimate strength of maraging steels increases on tempering roughly

by 80% and the yield limit, by 140%, i.e. the relative gain in strength
properties is not greater than in typical age-hardening alloys, such as
beryllium bronze or aluminum alloy Grade 1915, but the absolute
values of ultimate and yield strength on tempering of maraging steels
reach record figures among all precipitation hardening alloys. This is
mainly due to the fact that maraging steels have a very high strength
(Rm = 1100 MPa) in the initial (as-hardened) state.

The high strength of maraging steels on tempering at 480-500‹C for 1-

3 hours may be explained by the precipitation of very disperse semi
coherent particles of the size and interparticle spacing of an order of 10 3
nm in the strong matrix, these intermetallic precipitates also possessing
a high strength. Thus, with the same dispersity of precipitates as that of
G. P. zones in precipitation, hardening non-ferrous alloys, maraging
steels possess an appreciably higher ultimate strength (Rm = 1800-2000
MPa).

As compared with martensite-hardenable carbon-containing steels,

carbonless maraging steels show, for the same strength, a substantially
greater resistance to brittle fracture, which is their most remarkable
merit. On tempering to the maximum strength, the ductility indices and
impact toughness, though diminish somewhat, still remain rather high.
The high ductility of the carbonless matrix and the high dispersity of

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uniformly distributed intermetallic precipitates are responsible for a
very high resistance to cracking, which is the most valuable property of
modern high-strength structural materials.

The properties of maraging steels clearly indicate that these steels have
many potential applications in mechanical components of electro-
mechanical data processing machines. Use of these steels in shafts that
require good dimensional control following heat treatment should be
pursued for two reasons. First, maintaining dimensions should be easier
because quenching and tempering are not necessary. Second, wear data
indicate that equivalent or better wear resistance is obtained from the
maraging steel than from the more commonly used shaft materials.

Impact-fatigue strength of 18% Ni-maraging steels indicates that these

steels could be used in repeated impact loading situations. The good
fracture toughness, compared to that of quenched and tempered alloy
steels at the same strength level, indicates possible use in high-impact
low-cycle load applications.

Finally, due to the relatively low temperature of aging, the use of the
maraging steels for long, thin parts should be considered. Here, their use
as a replacement for some case hardened or nitrided components is
indicated that the potential application should be carefully studied.

Intermetallic
Intermetallic or intermetallic compound is a term that is used in a number of different ways.
Most commonly it refers to solid-state phases involving metals. There is a "research definition"
adhered to generally in scientific publications, and a wider "common use" term. There is also a
completely different use in coordination chemistry, where it has been used to refer to complexes
containing two or more different metals.

Although the term intermetallic compounds, as it applies to solid phases, has been in use for
many years, its introduction was regretted, for example by Hume-Rothery in 1955.[1]

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Note that many intermetallic compounds are often simply called 'alloys', although this is
somewhat of a misnomer. Both are metallic phases containing more than one element, but in
alloys, the various elements substitute randomly for one another in the crystal structure, forming
a solid solution with a range of possible compositions, while in intermetallic compounds,
different elements are ordered into different sites in the structure, with distinct local
environments and often a well-defined, fixed stoichiometry. Complex structures with very large
unit cells can be formed.

Definitions
Research definition

Schulze in 1967,[2] defined intermetallic compounds as solid phases containing two or more
metallic elements, with optionally one or more non-metallic elements, whose crystal structure
differs from that of the other constituents. Under this definition the following are included

 Electron (or Hume-Rothery) compounds

 Size packing phases. e.g. Laves phases, Frank–Kasper phases and Nowotny phases
 Zintl phases

The definition of a metal is taken to include:

 the so-called poor metals, i.e. aluminium, gallium, indium, thallium, tin and lead
 some, if not all, of the metalloids, e.g. silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium.

Alloys, which are homogeneous solid solutions of metals, and interstitial compounds such as the
carbides and nitrides are excluded under this definition. However, interstitial intermetallic
compounds are included as are alloys of intermetallic compounds with a metal.

Common use

In common use, the research definition, including poor metals and metalloids, is extended to
include compounds such as cementite, Fe3C. These compounds, sometimes termed interstitial
compounds can be stoichiometric, and share similar properties to the intermetallic compounds
defined above.

Intermetallics involving two or more metallic elements

Intermetallic compounds are generally brittle and high melting. They often offer a compromise
between ceramic and metallic properties when hardness and/or resistance to high temperatures is
important enough to sacrifice some toughness and ease of processing. They can also display
desirable magnetic, superconducting and chemical properties, due to their strong internal order
and mixed (metallic and covalent/ionic) bonding, respectively. Intermetallics have given rise to
various novel materials developments. Some examples include alnico and the hydrogen storage
materials in nickel metal hydride batteries. Ni3 Al, which is the hardening phase in the familiar

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nickel-base superalloys, and the various titanium aluminides have also attracted interest for
turbine blade applications, while the latter is also used in very small quantities for grain
refinement of titanium alloys. Silicides, intermetallics involving silicon, involving many of the
elements have been studied for, and some utilized as, barrier and contact layers in
microelectronics.[4]

Properties and examples

 Magnetic materials e.g. alnico; sendust; Permendur, FeCo

 Superconductors e.g. A15 phases; niobium-tin
 Hydrogen storage e.g. AB5 compounds (nickel metal hydride batteries)
 Shape memory alloys e.g. Cu-Al-Ni (alloys of Cu3Al and nickel); Nitinol (NiTi)
 Coating materials e.g. NiAl
 High-temperature structural materials e.g. nickel aluminide, Ni3Al
 Dental amalgams which are alloys of intermetallics Ag3Sn and Cu3Sn
 Gate contact/ barrier layer for microelectronics e.g. TiSi2[5]
 Amorphous metals or metallic glasses are a recent elaboration of the concept of intermetallic
materials.
 Laves phases (AB2), e.g., MgCu2, MgZn2 and MgNi2.

The formation of intermetallics can cause problems. Intermetallics of gold and aluminium can be
a significant cause of wire bond failures in semiconductor devices and other microelectronics
devices. There are five intermetallic compounds in the binary phase diagram of Al–Au. AuAl2 is
known as "purple plague". Au5Al2 is known as "white plague".

History
Examples of intermetallics through history include:

 Roman yellow brass, CuZn

 Chinese high tin bronze, Cu31Sn8
 type metal SbSn

German type metal is described as breaking like glass, not bending, softer than copper but more
fusible than lead.[6] The chemical formula does not agree with the one above; however, the
properties match with an intermetallic compound or an alloy of one.

Metallic glasses - Types and Applications.

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Metallic glasses are a relatively new class of materials whose dominant
characteristic is non crystalline which is unlike normal metal alloys that have
crystalline structure. In this article I have provided brief description about Metallic
glasses.

What is Metallic glass ?

Metallic glasses are those which share the properties of both metals and glasses. In general, they are
strong, ductile, malleable, opaque and brittle. They also have good magnetic properties and corrosion
resistance. It was discovered in the year 1970. They are also called as amorphous metals.

Types of Metallic glasses:

There are two types of Metallic glasses

1. Metal - metal metallic glasses.
2. Metal - metalloid metallic glasses.

1. Metal - metal metallic glasses.

They are formed by combination of metals.

Example:
1. Ni - Nb (Nickel & Niobium).
2. Mg - Zn (Magnesium & zinc).
3. Cu - Zr (Copper & Zirconium).
4. Hf - V (Hafnium & Vanadium).

2. Metal - metalloid metallic glasses.

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They are formed by combination of metals and metalloid.
Example:
Metals like Fe, Co, Ni and metalloid such as B, Si, C, P.

Applications of metallic glasses:

In Electrical and Electronics

Since metallic glasses have high electrical resistance, they are used to make accurate standard
resistance, computer memories and magnetic resistance sensors.

Nuclear reactor engineering

1. The magnetic properties of metallic glasses are not affected by irradiation and so they are useful in
preparing containers for nuclear waste disposal and magnets for fusion reactors.

2. Chromium and phosphorous based metallic glasses have high corrosion resistances and so they are
used in inner surface of the reactor vessels.

Bio - Medical Industries

1. Due to high resistance to corrosion, metallic glasses are suitable for cutting and making surgical
instruments.

2. They may also be used as prosthetic materials for implantation in human body.

Other Applications

1. They possess high physical and tensile strength. They are more superior than common steels and thus
they are useful as reinforcing elements in concrete, plastic and rubber.

2. Strong ribbons of metallic glasses can be used for simple filament winding to reinforce pressure
vessels and also to construct large fly wheels for energy storage.

3. Due to their good strength, high ductility and good corrosion resistance, they are used to make razor

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blades and different kinds of springs.

4. Since metallic glasses have soft magnetic properties, they are used in tape recorder heads, cores of
high-power transformers and metallic shields.

5. Superconducting metallic glasses are be used to produce high magnetic fields and magnetic
levitation effect.

I. What are Shape Memory Alloys?

Shape memory alloys (SMA's) are metals, which exhibit two very unique properties, pseudo-elasticity,
and the shape memory effect. Arne Olander first observed these unusual properties in 1938 (Oksuta
and Wayman 1998), but not until the 1960's were any serious research advances made in the field of
shape memory alloys. The most effective and widely used alloys include NiTi (Nickel - Titanium),
CuZnAl, and CuAlNi.

II. Applications of Shape Memory Alloys

The unusual properties mentioned above are being applied to a wide variety of applications in a
number of different fields. The buttons below are links to pages about some of the most promising
applications of SMAs. Each page contains information about the application as well as videos and
interactive applets which allow you to become more familiar with the behavior of SMAs.

III. How Shape Memory Alloys Work

Figure 1: The Martensite and The two unique properties described above are made possible
Austenite phases through a solid state phase change, that is a molecular
rearrangement, which occurs in the shape memory alloy.
Typically when one thinks of a phase change a solid to liquid
or liquid to gas change is the first idea that comes to mind. A
solid state phase change is similar in that a molecular
rearrangement is occurring, but the molecules remain closely
packed so that the substance remains a solid. In most shape
memory alloys, a temperature change of only about 10�C is

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 necessary to initiate this phase change. The two phases, which
occur in shape memory alloys, are Martensite, and Austenite.

Martensite, is the relatively soft and easily deformed phase of

shape memory alloys, which exists at lower temperatures. The
molecular structure in this phase is twinned which is the
configuration shown in the middle of Figure 2. Upon
deformation this phase takes on the second form shown in
Figure 2, on the right. Austenite, the stronger phase of shape
memory alloys, occurs at higher temperatures. The shape of
the Austenite structure is cubic, the structure shown on the
left side of Figure 2. The un-deformed Martensite phase is the
same size and shape as the cubic Austenite phase on a
macroscopic scale, so that no change in size or shape is visible
in shape memory alloys until the Martensite is deformed.

Figure 2: Microscopic and Macroscopic Views of the Two Phases of Shape Memory Alloys

Oulu University - [Link]

The temperatures at which each of these phases begin and finish forming are represented by the
following variables: Ms, Mf, As, Af. The amount of loading placed on a piece of shape memory alloy

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increases the values of these four variables as shown in Figure 3. The initial values of these four
variables are also dramatically affected by the composition of the wire (i.e. what amounts of each
element are present).

Figure 3: The Dependency of Phase Change Temperature on Loading

Texas A&M SMART Lab - [Link]

Shape Memory Effect

Figure 4: Microscopic Diagram of the Shape Memory Effect

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The shape memory effect is observed when the temperature of a piece of shape memory alloy is
cooled to below the temperature Mf. At this stage the alloy is completely composed of Martensite
which can be easily deformed. After distorting the SMA the original shape can be recovered simply by
heating the wire above the temperature Af. The heat transferred to the wire is the power driving the
molecular rearrangement of the alloy, similar to heat melting ice into water, but the alloy remains
solid. The deformed Martensite is now transformed to the cubic Austenite phase, which is configured
in the original shape of the wire.

The Shape memory effect is currently being implemented in:

 Coffepots
 The space shuttle
 Thermostats
 Vascular Stents
 Hydraulic Fittings (for Airplanes)

Pseudo-elasticity
Figure 5: Load Diagram of the pseudo-elastic effect Occurring

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Pseudo-elasticity occurs in shape memory alloys when the alloy is completely composed of Austenite
(temperature is greater than Af). Unlike the shape memory effect, pseudo-elasticity occurs without a
change in temperature. The load on the shape memory alloy is increased until the Austenite becomes
transformed into Martensite simply due to the loading; this process is shown in Figure 5. The loading is
absorbed by the softer Martensite, but as soon as the loading is decreased the Martensite begins to
transform back to Austenite since the temperature of the wire is still above Af, and the wire springs
back to its original shape.

Some examples of applications in which pseudo-elasticity is used are:

 Eyeglass Frames
 Bra Underwires
 Medical Tools
 Cellular Phone Antennae
 Orthodontic Arches

IV. Advantages and Disadvantages of Shape

Memory Alloys
Some of the main advantages of shape memory alloys include:

 Bio-compatibility
 Diverse Fields of Application
 Good Mechanical Properties (strong, corrosion resistant)

There are still some difficulties with shape memory alloys that must be overcome before they can live
up to their full potential. These alloys are still relatively expensive to manufacture and machine
compared to other materials such as steel and aluminum. Most SMA's have poor fatigue properties;
this means that while under the same loading conditions (i.e. twisting, bending, compressing) a steel
component may survive for more than one hundred times more cycles than an SMA element.

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Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are metals that "remember" their original shapes. SMAs are useful
for such things as actuators which are materials that "change shape, stiffness, position, natural
frequency, and other mechanical characteristics in response to temperature or electromagnetic
fields" (Rogers, 155). The potential uses for SMAs especially as actuators have broadened the
spectrum of many scientific fields. The study of the history and development of SMAs can
provide an insight into a material involved in cutting-edge technology. The diverse applications
for these metals have made them increasingly important and visible to the world.

History
Nickel-titanium alloys have been found to be the most useful of all SMAs. Other shape memory alloys
include copper-aluminum-nickel, copper-zinc-aluminum, and iron- manganese-silicon alloys.(Borden, 67)
The generic name for the family of nickel-titanium alloys is Nitinol. In 1961, Nitinol, which stands for
Nickel Titanium Naval Ordnance Laboratory, was discovered to possess the unique property of having
shape memory. William J. Buehler, a researcher at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory in White Oak,
Maryland, was the one to discover this shape memory alloy. The actual discovery of the shape memory
property of Nitinol came about by accident. At a laboratory management meeting, a strip of Nitinol was
presented that was bent out of shape many times. One of the people present, Dr. David S. Muzzey,
heated it with his pipe lighter, and surprisingly, the strip stretched back to its original form. (Kauffman
and Mayo, 4)

Crystal Structures
Exactly what made these metals "remember" their original shapes was in question after the discovery of
the shape-memory effect. Dr. Frederick E. Wang, an expert in crystal physics, pinpointed the structural
changes at the atomic level which contributed to the unique properties these metals have. (Kauffman
and Mayo, 4)

He found that Nitinol had phase changes while still a solid. These phase changes, known as
martensite and austenite, "involve the rearrangement of the position of particles within the
crystal structure of the solid" (Kauffman and Mayo, 4). Under the transition temperature, Nitinol
is in the martensite phase. The transition temperature varies for different compositions from
about -50 ° C to 166 ° C (Jackson, Wagner, and Wasilewski, 1). In the martensite phase, Nitinol
can be bent into various shapes. To fix the "parent shape" (as it is called), the metal must be held
in position and heated to about 500 ° C. The high temperature "causes the atoms to arrange

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themselves into the most compact and regular pattern possible" resulting in a rigid cubic
arrangement known as the austenite phase (Kauffman and Mayo, 5-6). Above the transition
temperature, Nitinol reverts from the martensite to the austenite phase which changes it back into
its parent shape. This cycle can be repeated millions of times (Jackson, Wagner, and Wasilewski,
1).

Manufacture
There are various ways to manufacture Nitinol. Current techniques of producing nickel-titanium alloys
include vacuum melting techniques such as electron-beam melting, vacuum arc melting or vacuum
induction melting. "The cast ingot is press-forged and/or rotary forged prior to rod and wire rolling. Hot
working to this point is done at temperatures between 700 ° C and 900 ° C" (Stoeckel and Yu, 3).

There is also a process of cold working of Ni-Ti alloys. The procedure is similar to titanium wire
fabrication. Carbide and diamond dies are used in the process to produce wires ranging from
0.075mm to 1.25mm in diameter. (Stoeckel and Yu, 4) Cold working of Nitinol causes "marked
changes in the mechanical and physical properties of the alloy" (Jackson, Wagner, and
Wasilewski, 21). These processes of the production of Nitinol are described in greater detail in
Jackson, Wagner, and Wasilewski's report (15-22).

Properties
The properties of Nitinol are particular to the exact composition of the metal and the way it was
processed. The physical properties of Nitinol include a melting point around 1240 ° C to 1310 ° C, and a
density of around 6.5 g/cm³ (Jackson, Wagner, and Wasilewski, 23). Various other physical properties
tested at different temperatures with various compositions of elements include electrical resitivity,
thermoelectric power, Hall coefficient, velocity of sound, damping, heat capacity, magnetic
susceptibility, and thermal conductivity (Jackson, Wagner, and Wasilewski, 23-55). Mechanical
properties tested include hardness, impact toughness, fatigue strength, and machinability (Jackson,
Wagner, and Wasilewski, 57-73).

The large force generated upon returning to its original shape is a very useful property. Other
useful properties of Nitinol are its "excellent damping characteristics at temperatures below the
transition temperature range, its corrosion resistance, its nonmagnetic nature, its low density and
its high fatigue strength" (Jackson, Wagner, and Wasilewski, 77). Nitinol is also to an extent
impact- and heat-resistant (Kauffman and Mayo, 4). These properties translate into many uses
for Nitinol.

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Applications
Nitinol is being used in a variety of applications. They have been used for military, medical, safety, and
robotics applications. The military has been using Nitinol couplers in F-14 fighter planes since the late
1960s. These couplers join hydraulic lines tightly and easily. (Kauffman and Mayo, 6)

Many of the current applications of Nitinol have been in the field of medicine. Tweezers to
remove foreign objects through small incisions were invented by NASA. Anchors with Nitinol
hooks to attach tendons to bone were used for Orel Hershiser's shoulder surgery. Orthodontic
wires made out of Nitinol reduces the need to retighten and adjust the wire. These wires also
accelerate tooth motion as they revert to their original shapes. Nitinol eyeglass frames can be
bent totally out of shape and return to their parent shape upon warming. (Kauffman and Mayo, 6)
Nitinol needle wire localizers "used to locate and mark breast tumors so that subsequent surgery
can be more exact and less invasive" utilize the metal's shape memory property. Another
successful medical application is Nitinol's use as a guide for catheters through blood vessels
(Stoeckel and Yu, 9-10).

There are examples of SMAs used in safety devices which will save lives in the future. Anti-
scalding devices and fire-sprinklers utilizing SMAs are already on the market. The anti-scalding
valves can be used in water faucets and shower heads. After a certain temperature, the device
automatically shuts off the water flow. The main advantage of Nitinol-based fire sprinklers is the
decrease in response time. (Kauffman and Mayo, 7)

Nitinol is being used in robotics actuators and micromanipulators to simulate human muscle
motion. The main advantage of Nitinol is the smooth, controlled force it exerts upon activation.
(Rogers, 156)

Other miscellaneous applications of shape memory alloys include use in household appliances,
in clothing, and in structures. A deep fryer utilizes the thermal sensitivity by lowering the basket
into the oil at the correct temperature. (Falcioni, 114) According to Stoeckel and Yu, "one of the
most unique and successful applications is the Ni-Ti underwire brassiere" (11). These bras,
which were engineered to be both comfortable and durable, are already extremely successful in
Japan (Stoeckel and Yu, 11). Nitinol actuators as engine mounts and suspensions can also control
vibration. These actuators can helpful prevent the destruction of such structures as buildings and
bridges. (Rogers, 156)

Other applications:

 European Space Agency

 SMA INC.

Here are some of the pictures available from this section:

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Future Applications
There are many possible applications for SMAs. Future applications are envisioned to include engines in
cars and airplanes and electrical generators utilizing the mechanical energy resulting from the shape
transformations. Nitinol with its shape memory property is also envisioned for use as car frames.
(Kauffman and Mayo, 7) Other possible automotive applications using SMA springs include engine
cooling, carburetor and engine lubrication controls, and the control of a radiator blind ("to reduce the
flow of air through the radiator at start-up when the engine is cold and hence to reduce fuel usage and
exhaust emissions")

SMAs are "ideally suited for use as fasteners, seals, connectors, and clamps" in a variety of
applications . Tighter connections and easier and more efficient installations result from the use
of shape memory alloys.

Conclusion
The many uses and applications of shape memory alloys ensure a bright future for these metals.
Research is currently carried out at many robotics departments and materials science departments.
With the innovative ideas for applications of SMAs and the number of products on the market using
SMAs continually growing, advances in the field of shape memory alloys for use in many different fields
of study seem very promising.

Titanium aluminide
Titanium aluminide, TiAl, is an intermetallic chemical compound. It is lightweight and
resistant to oxidation [1]and heat, however it suffers from low ductility. The density of gamma
TiAl is about 4.0 g/cm³. It finds use in several applications including automobiles and aircraft.
The development of TiAl based alloys began about 1970; however the alloys have only been
used in these applications since about 2000.

Applications

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Titanium aluminide has three major intermetallic compounds: gamma TiAl, alpha 2-Ti3 Al and
TiAl3. Among the three, gamma TiAl has received the most interest and applications. Gamma
TiAl has excellent mechanical properties and oxidation and corrosion resistance at elevated
temperatures (over 600 degrees Celsius), which makes it a possible replacement for traditional
Ni based superalloy components in aircraft turbine engines.

TiAl based alloys have a strong potential to increase the thrust-to-weight ratio in the aircraft
engine. This is especially the case with the engine's low pressure turbine blades and the high
pressure compressor blades. These are traditionally made up of Ni based superalloy, which is
nearly twice as dense as TiAl based alloys.

Smart material

Smart materials or designed materials are materials that have one or more properties that can
be significantly changed in a controlled fashion by external stimuli, such as stress, temperature,
moisture, pH, electric or magnetic fields.

There are a number of types of smart material, some of which are already common. Some
examples are as following:

 Piezoelectric materials are materials that produce a voltage when stress is applied. Since this
effect also applies in the reverse manner, a voltage across the sample will produce stress within
the sample. Suitably designed structures made from these materials can therefore be made that
bend, expand or contract when a voltage is applied.
 Shape-memory alloys and shape-memory polymers are materials in which large deformation
can be induced and recovered through temperature changes or stress changes
(pseudoelasticity). The large deformation results due to martensitic phase change.
 Magnetostrictive materials exhibit change in shape under the influence of magnetic field and
also exhibit change in their magnetization under the influence of mechanical stress.
 Magnetic shape memory alloys are materials that change their shape in response to a significant
change in the magnetic field.
 pH-sensitive polymers are materials that change in volume when the pH of the surrounding
medium changes.
 Temperature-responsive polymers are materials which undergo changes upon temperature.
 Halochromic materials are commonly used materials that change their colour as a result of
changing acidity. One suggested application is for paints that can change colour to indicate
corrosion in the metal underneath them.
 Chromogenic systems change colour in response to electrical, optical or thermal changes. These
include electrochromic materials, which change their colour or opacity on the application of a
voltage (e.g., liquid crystal displays), thermochromic materials change in colour depending on
their temperature, and photochromic materials, which change colour in response to light—for
example, light sensitive sunglasses that darken when exposed to bright sunlight.

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  Ferrofluid
 Photomechanical materials change shape under exposure to light.
 Self-healing materials have the intrinsic ability to repair damage due to normal usage, thus
expanding the material's lifetime
 Dielectric elastomers (DEs) are smart material systems which produce large strains (up to 300%)
under the influence of an external electric field.
 Magnetocaloric materials are compounds that undergo a reversible change in temperature
upon exposure to a changing magnetic field.
 Thermoelectric materials are used to build devices that convert temperature differences into
electricity and vice-versa.

Smart Materials
Science and technology have made amazing
developments in the design of electronics and
machinery using standard materials, which do not
have particularly special properties (i.e. steel,
aluminum, gold). Imagine the range of possibilities,
which exist for special materials that have
properties scientists can manipulate. Some such
materials have the ability to change shape or size
simply by adding a little bit of heat, or to change
from a liquid to a solid almost instantly when near
a magnet; these materials are called smart
materials.

Smart materials have one or more properties that

can be dramatically altered. Most everyday
materials have physical properties, which cannot
be significantly altered; for example if oil is heated
it will become a little thinner, whereas a smart
material with variable viscosity may turn from a
A smart fluid developed in labs at the Michigan Institute fluid which flows easily to a solid. A variety of smart
of Technology materials already exist, and are being researched
extensively. These include piezoelectric materials,
magneto-rheostatic materials, electro-rheostatic
materials, and shape memory alloys. Some
everyday items are already incorporating smart
materials (coffeepots, cars, the International Space
Station, eyeglasses) and the number of applications
for them is growing steadily.

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Each individual type of smart material has a different property which can be significantly altered, such as
viscosity, volume, and conductivity. The property that can be altered influences what types of
applications the smart material can be used for.

I. Piezoelectric Materials
Piezoelectric materials have two unique properties which are interrelated. When a piezoelectric
material is deformed, it gives off a small but measurable electrical discharge. Alternately, when an
electrical current is passed through a piezoelectric material it experiences a significant increase in size
(up to a 4% change in volume)

Piezoelectric materials are most widely used as sensors in different environments. They are often used
to measure fluid compositions, fluid density, fluid viscosity, or the force of an impact. An example of a
piezoelectric material in everyday life is the airbag sensor in your car. The material senses the force of
an impact on the car and sends and electric charge deploying the airbag.

An illustration of the Piezoelectric Effect

II. Electro-rheostatic and Magneto-rheostatic

Electro-rheostatic (ER) and magneto-rheostatic (MR) materials are fluids, which can experience a
dramatic change in their viscosity. These fluids can change from a thick fluid (similar to motor oil) to
nearly a solid substance within the span of a millisecond when exposed to a magnetic or electric field;
the effect can be completely reversed just as quickly when the field is removed. MR fluids experience a
viscosity change when exposed to a magnetic field, while ER fluids experience similar changes in an
electric field. The composition of each type of smart fluid varies widely. The most common form of MR
fluid consists of tiny iron particles suspended in oil, while ER fluids can be as simple as milk chocolate or

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cornstarch and oil.

MR fluids are being developed for use in car shocks, damping washing machine vibration, prosthetic
limbs, exercise equipment, and surface polishing of machine parts. ER fluids have mainly been
developed for use in clutches and valves, as well as engine mounts designed to reduce noise and
vibration in vehicles.

Compiled by

Veerapandian.K
EGSPEC

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