Optical encoder for angle measurement consists of a disc with opaque and

transparent sections. The process is perfectly analogue but the output is simply
digitized into two levels by a comparator circuit

Sensor - Basics 1
 Overview

• Sensors?

• Commonly Detectable Phenomenon

• Physical Principles – How Sensors Work?

• Need for Sensors

• Choosing a Sensor

• Examples

Sensor - Basics 2
 Sensors?

• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

• A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified measurand

• A sensor acquires a physical quantity and converts it into a signal suitable for
processing (e.g. optical, electrical, mechanical)
• Nowadays common sensors convert measurement of physical phenomena into
an electrical signal
• Active element of a sensor is called a transducer

Fundamental 3
 Transducer?

A device which converts one form of energy to another

• When input is a physical quantity and output electrical → Sensor
Physical parameter  Electrical Output
• When input is electrical and output a physical quantity → Actuator
Electrical Input  Physical Output
e.g. Piezoelectric:
Force -> voltage ; Voltage-> Force

Thermistor

Temp Sensor Change in R Temp Sensor Change in R

Bridge
Circuit
Electrical Output

Sensor - Basics 4
 • All the sensors are not transducers but all the transducers contain a sensor
• Mention any device which can be called as sensor as well as transducer
Stimulus output = Transduction output
• A solar cell responds to a stimulus; produces voltage or current in response
to radiation. (There is no intermediate physical conversion)

Sensor - Basics 5
 • Physical

• thermo-electric, thermo-elastic, thermo-magnetic, thermo-optic

• photo-electric, photo-elastic, photo-magnetic,

• electro-elastic, electro-magnetic

• magneto-electric

• Chemical

• chemical transport, physical transformation, electro-chemical

• Biological

• biological transformation, physical transformation

Common Conversion Methods 6

 Environmental Economic Factors Sensor
Factors Characteristics
Temperature Range Cost Sensitivity
Corrosion Availability Range
Size Life Time Stability
Overrange Repeatability
Protection
Susceptibility to EM Linearity
Interferences
Ruggedness Error
Power Response Time
Consumption
Self-test capability Frequency
response

Choosing a sensor 7
 • Transfer function - physical i/p & electrical o/p

• Sensitivity – small change in electrical signal to a small change in physical signal

• Span or Dynamic range – signal outside of this range, inaccuracy

• Accuracy or Uncertainty – Qualitative & Quantitative

• Hysteresis – Input Stimulus is cycled up or down, width of expected error

• Nonlinearity – linear transfer function over the specified dynamic range

• Noise – Johnson Noise

• Resolution – Minimum detectable signal fluctuation

• Bandwidth – finite response times to an instantaneous change in physical signal

Sensor Characteristics Source: Sensor Technology Handbook, Jon Wilson 8

 Resistive sensor circuits

Capacitance measuring circuits

Sensor Limitations

• Lead resistance
• Output Impedance
• Stray capacitances

Types of sensors Source: Sensor Technology Handbook, Jon Wilson 9

Impedance 10
AC Impedance 11
AC Impedance 12
AC Impedance 13
AC Impedance 14
AC Ohm’s Law 15
Impedance Cable 16
 • Highly accurate measurements required
• Measurement environmental, mechanical and measurement conditions
• Possible accuracy measurements
Sensor characteristics
Measurement Environmental • Sensitivity
• Temperature Range • Frequency response
• Maximum Shock and Vibration
(Resonance & Minor)
• Humidity
• Internal capacitance
• Pressure
• Acoustic level • Transverse sensitivity
• Corrosive gasses • Amplitude linearity and hysteresis
• Magnetic and RF fields • Weight and size
• Nuclear radiation • Internal resistance at maximum
• Salt spray temperature
• Transient Temperature Data acquisition
• Strain in mounting surface
• Upto date calibration
• Physical condition; case, mounting surface,
internal resistance

Instrument Selection Source: Sensor Technology Handbook, Jon Wilson 17

Matched Thermal Resistance
Matching Thermoelectrics to Heat Exchangers
 J. Mater. Chem. A, 2016, 4, 7983–7999

Hybridization of energy harvesting

22
 J. Mater. Chem. A, 2016, 4, 7983–7999

Hybridization of energy harvesting

23
 J. Mater. Chem. A, 2016, 4, 7983–7999

Hybridization of energy harvesting

24
 J. Mater. Chem. A, 2016, 4, 7983–7999

Hybridization of energy harvesting

25
 J. Mater. Chem. A, 2016, 4, 7983–7999

Hybrid structure of energy harvester and storage device

26
 J. Mater. Chem. A, 2015, 3, 14963–14970

Hybrid structure of energy harvester and storage device

27
low dropout regulator (LDO)
Ideal Step-Down (Buck) Converter
Ideal Step-Up (Boost) Converter
Inductor Power Losses
Emerging Opportunities and Challenges

Melting Point /
Material Bandgap (eV) Type
Behavior
Indirect
Silicon (Si) 1414 °C 1.12 eV bandgap
semiconductor
Indirect
Germanium
938 °C 0.66 eV bandgap
(Ge)
semiconductor
Power electronics
technology Does NOT
Gallium Nitride melt— Wide bandgap
3.4 eV
(GaN) decomposes at semiconductor
~2500–2600 °C
Does NOT
Silicon Carbide melt—sublimes Wide bandgap
3.26 eV
(SiC) at ~2700–2900 semiconductor
°C

Global projected growth of connected devices by

 Feature Rockwell’s WINS Medusa II Nodes
Embedded
Industrial wireless
sensor/actuator nodes for
Primary Purpose networking for factory
smart environments and
automation
ubiquitous computing
Industrial automation, Smart buildings,
Application Domain process control, interactive environments,
manufacturing research labs
Low-power industrial Wireless sensor network
Networking Style
mesh network for context-aware systems
Reliability, interference Multimodal sensing,
Focus resistance, deterministic distributed intelligence,
communication context interpretation
Rich sensing, processing,
Mainly communication +
actuation, and
Node Capability basic sensing for industrial
communication integrated
monitoring
on one node
Harsh industrial settings Indoor intelligent
Environmental Conditions with noise, metal environments like rooms,
machinery, EMI labs, offices
Optimized for long-term, Low-power but supports
Power Requirement low-maintenance more sensing + processing
industrial deployment capabilities
Mostly centralized or Distributed local
Data Processing
controller-based processing at each node
Equipment diagnostics, Activity tracking, smart
Use Cases predictive maintenance, room automation,
machine monitoring interactive systems
Flexible, modular,
Stable, secure, and real-
Design Philosophy research-oriented sensing
time industrial networking
platform

Wireless Industrial Networking System

 End Semester Examination: Jul - Nov 2025

15 November 2025 – Online submission

-> Video presentation

-> Demonstration (24th afternoon)

06 November 2025 – Quiz

24 November 2025 – END semester (Slot 1: 09.30 AM - 12.30 PM)

45