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Lecture 10: Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
Introduction to Databases
BASHARAT AHMAD
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Outline
Types of Databases and Database Applications
Basic Definitions
Typical DBMS Functionality
Example of a Database (UNIVERSITY)
Main Characteristics of the Database Approach
Database Users
Advantages of Using the Database Approach
When Not to Use Databases
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Types & Applications
Traditional Applications:
Numeric and Textual Databases
More Recent Applications:
Multimedia Databases
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Data Warehouses
Real-time and Active Databases
Many other applications
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Basic Definitions
Database:
A collection of related data.
Data:
Known facts that can be recorded and have an implicit meaning.
Mini-world:
Some part of the real world about which data is stored in a database. For example,
student grades and transcripts at a university.
Database Management System (DBMS):
A software package/ system to facilitate the creation and maintenance of a
computerized database.
Database System:
The DBMS software together with the data itself. Sometimes, the applications are
also included.
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Simplified Database System Environment
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Typical DBMS Functionality
Define a particular database in terms of its data types, structures, and constraints
Construct or Load the initial database contents on a secondary storage medium
Manipulating the database:
Retrieval: Querying, generating reports
Modification: Insertions, deletions and updates to its content
Accessing the database through Web applications
Processing and Sharing by a set of concurrent users and application programs –
yet, keeping all data valid and consistent
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Typical DBMS Functionality
Other features:
Protection or Security measures to prevent unauthorized access
“Active” processing to take internal actions on data
Presentation and Visualization of data
Maintaining the database and associated programs over the lifetime of the
database application
Called database, software, and system maintenance
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Example of Database
Mini-world for the example:
Part of a UNIVERSITY environment.
Some mini-world entities:
STUDENTs
COURSEs
SECTIONs (of COURSEs)
(academic) DEPARTMENTs
INSTRUCTORs
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Example of Database (Cont.)
Some mini-world relationships:
SECTIONs are of specific COURSEs
STUDENTs take SECTIONs
COURSEs have prerequisite COURSEs
INSTRUCTORs teach SECTIONs
COURSEs are offered by DEPARTMENTs
STUDENTs major in DEPARTMENTs
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Example of Simple Database
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Main Characteristics of the Database Approach
Self-describing nature of a database system:
A DBMS catalog stores the description of a particular database (e.g. data
structures, types, and constraints)
The description is called meta-data.
This allows the DBMS software to work with different database applications.
Insulation between programs and data:
Called program-data independence.
Allows changing data structures and storage organization without having to
change the DBMS access programs.
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Example of a Simplified Database Catalog
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Main Characteristics of the Database
Approach
Data Abstraction:
A data model is used to hide storage details and present the
users with a conceptual view of the database.
Programs refer to the data model constructs rather than data
storage details
Support of multiple views of the data:
Each user may see a different view of the database, which
describes only the data of interest to that user.
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Main Characteristics of the Database
Approach (Cont.)
Sharing of data and multi-user transaction processing:
Allowing a set of concurrent users to retrieve from and to update the
database.
Concurrency control within the DBMS guarantees that each transaction is
correctly executed or aborted
Recovery subsystem ensures each completed transaction has its effect
permanently recorded in the database
OLTP (Online Transaction Processing) is a major part of database
applications. This allows hundreds of concurrent transactions to execute per
second.
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Database Users
Users may be divided into
Those who actually use and control the database content, and
those who design, develop and maintain database applications
(called “Actors on the Scene”), and
Those who design and develop the DBMS software and related
tools, and the computer systems operators (called “Workers
Behind the Scene”).
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Database Users (Cont.)
Workers behind the scene
Database administrators:
Responsible for authorizing access to the database, for coordinating and
monitoring its use, acquiring software and hardware resources,
controlling its use and monitoring efficiency of operations.
Database Designers:
Responsible to define the content, the structure, the constraints, and
functions or transactions against the database. They must communicate
with the end-users and understand their needs.
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Categories of End Users
Actors on the scene
End-users: They use the data for queries, reports and some of them update
the database content. End-users can be categorized into:
Casual: access database occasionally when needed
Naïve or Parametric: they make up a large section of the end-user
population.
They use previously well-defined functions in the form of “canned
transactions” against the database.
Examples are bank-tellers or reservation clerks who do this activity
for an entire shift of operations.
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Categories of End Users (Cont.)
Sophisticated:
These include business analysts, scientists, engineers, others thoroughly
familiar with the system capabilities.
Many use tools in the form of software packages that work closely with the
stored database.
Stand-alone:
Mostly maintain personal databases using ready-to-use packaged
applications.
An example is a tax program user that creates its own internal database.
Another example is a user that maintains an address book
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Advantages of Using a Database Approach
Controlling redundancy in data storage and in development and maintenance
efforts.
Sharing of data among multiple users.
Restricting unauthorized access to data.
Providing persistent storage for program Objects
Providing Storage Structures (e.g. indexes) for efficient Query Processing
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Advantages of Using a Database Approach
(Cont.)
Providing backup and recovery services.
Providing multiple interfaces to different classes of users.
Representing complex relationships among data.
Enforcing integrity constraints on the database.
Drawing inferences and actions from the stored data using deductive and active rules
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Additional Implications of Using the Database
Approach
Potential for enforcing standards:
This is very crucial for the success of database applications in large
organizations. Standards refer to data item names, display formats, screens,
report structures, meta-data (description of data), Web page layouts, etc.
Reduced application development time:
Incremental time to add each new application is reduced.
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Additional Implications of Using the Database
Approach (Cont.)
Flexibility to change data structures:
Database structure may evolve as new requirements are defined.
Availability of current information:
Extremely important for on-line transaction systems such as airline, hotel, car
reservations.
Economies of scale:
Wasteful overlap of resources and personnel can be avoided by consolidating
data and applications across departments.
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Historical Development of Database
Technology
Early Database Applications:
The Hierarchical and Network Models were introduced in mid 1960s and
dominated during the seventies.
A bulk of the worldwide database processing still occurs using these models,
particularly, the hierarchical model.
Relational Model based Systems:
Relational model was originally introduced in 1970, was heavily researched
and experimented within IBM Research and several universities.
Relational DBMS Products emerged in the early 1980s.
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Historical Development of Database
Technology (Cont.)
Object-oriented and emerging applications:
Object-Oriented Database Management Systems (OODBMSs) were
introduced in late 1980s and early 1990s to cater to the need of complex data
processing in CAD and other applications.
Their use has not taken off much.
Many relational DBMSs have incorporated object database concepts, leading
to a new category called object-relational DBMSs (ORDBMSs)
Extended relational systems add further capabilities (e.g. for multimedia
data, XML, and other data types)
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Historical Development of Database
Technology (Cont.)
Data on the Web and E-commerce Applications:
Web contains data in HTML (Hypertext markup language) with links among
pages.
This has given rise to a new set of applications and E-commerce is using new
standards like XML (eXtended Markup Language). (see Ch. 27).
Script programming languages such as PHP and JavaScript allow generation
of dynamic Web pages that are partially generated from a database (see Ch.
26).
Also allow database updates through Web pages
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Extending Database Capabilities
New functionality is being added to DBMSs in the following areas:
Scientific Applications
XML (eXtensible Markup Language)
Image Storage and Management
Audio and Video Data Management
Data Warehousing and Data Mining
Spatial Data Management
Time Series and Historical Data Management
The above gives rise to new research and development in incorporating new data types,
complex data structures, new operations and storage and indexing schemes in database
systems.
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When not to use a DBMS
Main inhibitors (costs) of using a DBMS:
High initial investment and possible need for additional hardware.
Overhead for providing generality, security, concurrency control, recovery,
and integrity functions.
When a DBMS may be unnecessary:
If the database and applications are simple, well defined, and not expected to
change.
If there are stringent real-time requirements that may not be met because of
DBMS overhead.
If access to data by multiple users is not required.
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When not to use a DBMS (Cont.)
When no DBMS may suffice:
If the database system is not able to handle the complexity of data because of
modeling limitations
If the database users need special operations not supported by the DBMS.
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Summary
Types of Databases and Database Applications
Basic Definitions
Typical DBMS Functionality
Example of a Database (UNIVERSITY)
Main Characteristics of the Database Approach
Database Users
Advantages of Using the Database Approach
When Not to Use Databases