CHAPTER TWO

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
2.1 Computer System
System is an organized relationship among functioning units or components. The purpose of
computer system is to solve a problem by processing data into information. There are many types
of data, some of them are:
 Text data: consists of standard alphabets (A – Z, a – z), numbers (0 -9), special characters
(%, $, &, +,* - -).
 Graphic data: consists of stick pictures such as drawings, graphs, photographs etc.
 Audio data: Include any music & voice.
 Video data: consists of motion pictures such as moving clip, pictures of a conference etc.
As a system, a computer system has two components, i.e. hardware and software.

 Hardware: is the physical part of a computer that you can see and touch with our hand.
 Software: is the internal component of the computer that used to control, integrating, and
managing the hard ware components and to accomplish specific tasks.

2.1.1 Computer Hardware:

Hardware: is the physical part of a computer that you can see and touch with our hand. A hard
ware composed of different units. These are: Input device, Central Processing Unit (CPU),
Output device and Storage unit.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

ALU Control
Unit
INPUT OUTPUT
UNIT UNIT
Registers

ROM
Primary Memory

SECONDARY STORAGE
DEVICE

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 1. Input Unit:
An input device can be defined as an electromechanical device that allows the user to feed
information (data) into the computer for analysis, storage, and to give commands to the
computer. Data and instruction are entered into the computer’s main memory through an input
device. Input device captures information and translates it into a form that can be processed and
used by other parts of the computer. After processing the input data, the computer provides the
result with the help of output devices.
Input devices play a major role in the processing of any data via the computer system because
the output of the computer is always based on the given input.

The commonly used input devices are: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner and Digital camera
 Key board: is the most common data entry device, and has different shapes and size. The
keys on the keyboard are often classified as follows
 Functional key: assigned specific commands by the current application. E.g. F1-
help, F2-Setup.
 Alphanumeric keys (typing keys): Letters and numbers.
 Punctuation keys: comma, period, semicolon, etc.
 Special keys: Caps Lock, Spacebar, Shift, and Enter etc.
 Control keys: these keys provide cursor and screen control. E.g. Arrow keys,
Home, Page down etc.
In detail the following are descriptions of the keyboard.
 Escape key - Generally used to abort some actions.
 Function keys - functions vary from program to program.
 Enter key - used to enter commands and to create blank lines in a document.
 Backspace key - used to move the cursor backwards, deleting backward.
 Tab key - used to access tab stop.
 Caps lock key - works like the shift lock. - Key on a typewriter.
 Shift key - used to produce upper case letters and sometimes to invoke commands
 Control key & Alt key - commonly used in combination with other keys to enter commands
e g. Control home.
 Insert key - used to enter characters.
 Arrow keys - used to move the cursor around the display screen.
 Delete keys - used to delete characters.
 Numbers lock keys - used to activate the numeric keypad.
 Print screen keys - used to print the contents of the screen.

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 Mouse: is a small hand-held pointing device, which is rectangular-shaped with a rubber
ball embedded at its lower side and buttons on the top. The rubber ball used to move the
cursor and the button used to initiate to do some action, and it has two buttons, the right
button and left button.
 Right click - used to produce a ‘pop-up’ menu.
 Left click - carries out an action, such as starting an application.
Types of mouse
A. Mechanical - has a rubber or metal ball on its underside that can roll in all
directions.
 Mechanical sensors within the mouse detect the direction the ball is rolling
and move the screen pointer accordingly.
B. Opto-mechanical - same as mechanical mouse, but uses optical sensors to detect
motion of the ball.
C. Optical: it doesn’t have mechanical moving part and uses a laser to detect the
mouse’s movement.
 Scanner: is a device that used to convert hard copy in to soft copy form.
 Used to scan or read text and picture and converted them to
computer usable form.
 Save the scanned image as a graphic file in the computer.
 Digital Camera: Stores images digitally rather than recording them on a film. Once a
picture has been taken, it can be downloaded to a computer system and then manipulated
with an image editing software.
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU or the microprocessor (or simply processor) is referred as the brain of computer
system. It controls all internal and external devices, and performs arithmetic and logical
operations. The processor operates only on binary data that is composed of 1’s and 0’s
corresponding to electrical switches ON or OFF. It performs, supervises, and controls the
arithmetic operations (Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logical functions (such
as ‘is A greater than B’?), primary storage, or main memory, provides the temporary locations
inside the computer where the data and instructions are stored while processed. The functions
of the processor can be summarizing as:
 Carrying out arithmetic and logical functions
 Controlling the use of main storage (memory) to store data and
instructions.
 Controlling the sequence of operations
 Controlling all the parts of the computer system.

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The CPU consists of three main subsystems. These are: Control unit, Arithmetic and Logical
unit and Registers.
These three sub systems work together to provide the operational capabilities of the computer.
As buses carry people from one place to another place, the system bus carries information from
one unit to another.
 System bus is a collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one unit to
another in computer system (CPU, memory, and I/O devices). It is further divided in to
three logical units, namely the address bus, data bus, and control bus.
 Data Bus: it transfers the actual data between the processor, memory, and the I/O
devices.
 Address Bus: It informs the CPU about the location of the data residing in the memory.
 Control Bus: It is responsible for making CPU, memory, and I/O devices work together
as a functional system, carrying signals that report the status (ready, not ready) of various
units.
 Control Unit
The control unit can be thought of as the heart of the CPU. It controls the I/O devices and
transfer of data to and from the primary storage. It reads and interprets instructions that retrieve
from the main memory. It controls the flow of instructions from memory to CPU or from ALU to
registers. The control unit repeats a set of four basic operations: fetching, decoding, executing,
and storing.
 Fetching: is the process of obtaining a program instruction or data item from memory.
 Decoding: is the process of translating the instruction in to commands the computer can
execute.
 Executing: is the process of carrying out the commands.
 Storing: is the process of writing the result to memory.
Generally, it performs all the control functions of the computer.
 It retrieves the instruction from memory.
 Translates those instructions into computer functions and sends signals to other computer
hardware units to carry out those functions.
 It is also responsible for determining the next instruction to be executed by the computer.
 In general it serves as the computer traffic cope.
 Arithmetic Logical Unit
As the name suggests, the arithmetic logical unit carries out arithmetic and logical operations on
the data made available to it. For simple understanding, the ALU can be divided in to arithmetic
unit and logical unit.

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Arithmetic Unit: contains the circuitry that is responsible for performing the actual computing
and carrying out the arithmetic calculations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. It can perform these operations at a very high speed.
Logical Unit: the importance of the logical unit is the ability it provides to the CPU to make
logical operations based on the instructions provided to it. Logical unit uses statements such as
AND, OR, and NOT. This is useful when you have a set of instructions to execute only if certain
conditions are true.
 Registers:
The registers are special purpose, high speed temporary memory unit. They hold varies types of
information such as data, instructions, addresses, and the intermediate results of calculations.
Essentially, they hold the information that the CPU is currently working on. Registers can be
thought of as CPU’s working memory. As the size of the registers increase, the computer
processing activities also increase. To execute an instruction, the control unit receives it from the
main memory and places in to the register.
 Registers are paths or conduits that connect the Arithmetic Logical Unit to the
main memory.
 When an instruction loaded from main memory, it is placed first in the register to
wait instructions from the control unit.
 Data are also stored in registers prior to execution in the ALU.
3. Output devices(Units):
Peripheral devices which used to convert machine readable information in to human readable
form. Display the processed data in hard copy form/soft copy form. Hard copy is the physical
form of output (paper form). But soft copy is the electronic version of an output, which usually
resides in computer memory or on disk. Soft copy is not tangible (cannot be touched).
The most common used output devices are: Printers, Plotters, Monitors, Projectors, and
Speakers
 Printer: prints information and data from the computer on to paper. Printers are divided
in to impact printers and non impact printers.
 Plotters: is a pen based output device that is attached to a computer for making vector
graphics.
 It is used to draw high –resolution charts, graphs, maps, circuit diagrams.
 They are mainly used for computer aided design (CAD) and computer aided
manufacturing (CAM) applications such as printing out plans of houses or car
parts.
 These are also used with programs like AUTO CAD (Computer Assisted
Drafting) to give graphic outputs.

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  Monitor: is the most frequently used soft copy output device. It used to display the
processed data.
 Projectors: are output devices, which are used to project information from a computer
on to a large screen. There are two types of projectors, LCD( Liquid crystal display) and
DLP(digital light processing)
 Speaker: is an output device, which is used to magnify sound
4. Storage device
Devices used to store data or program files. There are two types of storage devices.
 Primary storage devices
 Secondary storage devices.
A. Primary storage devices: are used to store data that are processed and executed
immediately. An example of primary storage device is a Memory. Memory is the electronic
holding place for instructions and data where the computer’s microprocessor can reach
quickly. CPU requires memory to handle the intermediately results and to store the final
output. The primary memory (storage device) also implemented by two types of memory
technologies. Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).
 Random Access Memory (RAM):- directly provides the
required information to the processor. RAM can be defined as a block of sequential
memory locations, each of which has a unique address determining the location and those
locations contain a data element. It stores programs and data that are in active use. It
is volatile in nature, which means the information stored in it remains as long as the
power is switched ON. As soon as the power is switched OFF, the information contained
in it vanishes (lost). In RAM we can write data on it and read data from it. RAM also
divides further into two.
o Dynamic Random Access Memory: It holds the
data in dynamic (keeping on refreshing) manner with the help of a refresh
circuitry.
o Static Random Access Memory: Along with DRAM is essential for a system
to run optimally, because it is very fast as compared to DRAM. It retains the
data as long as power is provided to the memory chips. It does not need to be
‘refreshed’ periodically.
Features of RAM
 We can write data on it and read data from it.
 It is volatile in nature, means the information stored in it lost, if a power suddenly
failure.
 It stores data and instruction temporarily.

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  Read Only Memory (ROM): This type of primary
memory can only be read, not written. In other words, CPU can only read from any
location in the ROM but cannot write.
Features of ROM
 The contents of ROM are not lost even in case of a sudden power failure, making it
non-volatile in nature.
 It is also random access in nature.
 It reads only, but cannot write.
 It contains permanent recorded instruction.
 Cache Memory: is a piece of very fast memory, made from high speed static RAM that
reduces the access time of the data. It is very expensive and generally incorporated in the
processor, where valuable data and program segments are kept. This enables the
processor to access data quickly whenever it is needed. The cache facilitates the system
to catch up with the processors speed.
B. Secondary storage device: are devices used to store data file and program files permanently.
Secondary storage devices are designed as a backup to the main storage, and they store data
on a long-term basis.
Benefits of secondary storage devices are:
 Non-volatile - it does not lose its content even when its power is
turn of.
 Capacity – they can store large amount of data.
 Cost - it is less expensive than Primary storage device.
 Portability – they can be easily ported from one computer to
another.
Example:
 Floppy disk- is a direct access secondary device that used to store information. It is
cheap, small in size, portable and compact. It read and written by a floppy disk drive.
 Hard disk- a smooth metal plate coated on both sides with a thin film of magnetic
material. Permanently fixed within a system unit. It has high storage capacity than floppy
disk, and it is a random access storage media.
 CD/DVD: these types of storage media are removable optical disks used to store data.
The first one (CD) is that in which the data once written cannot be erased. It is stored
permanently over it. While the second type of the CD’s or the DVD’s are called as the
rewritable; where in the data that is once written can be erased completely and the same
storage device can be used again for storing the different data.
 Flash disk: is a secondary storage device used to read and write on it like floppy disk. It
has higher storage capacity, and more reliable than floppy, but it is more expensive.

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 The internal component of the computer that used to control, integrate, and manage the
hardware components and to accomplish specific tasks. There are two components of software.
2.2. Computer Software:
The computer software is collection of set of instructions that instructs the computer hardware.
These set of instructions perform different functions; some deals with handling the computer
hardware and the others perform user specific tasks such as managing a database. Therefore the
computer software is divided into two major categories depending upon the nature of work this
software does:-
1. System software
2. Application Software
The following figure shows the classification of the computer software:-

Utility
software

e.g.
Antivirus
2.2.1 System Software
The system software handles the computer hardware so that the user can operate the computer
with little knowledge about the computer hardware. For example, the user is not concerned
where the file is saved on the hard disk. This is the responsibility of the system software to check
the hard disk and space on the free space of the hard disk.
The system software is further divided as operating system software and language software and
Utility software.
i. Operating System software

An operating system is a program that acts as the link between you, the computer’s software and
hardware resources. It is the foundation software onto which all other application programs are
loaded. It is the master program of your system that allows you, the user, to run application
programs (Word Processors, Spreadsheets, Gamed, etc.)
Without the operating system the application software would be unable to function. Operating
System software manages most of your computer’s activities, including the allocation of
computer resources, maintenance of files, and running of application software. As a file manager
the operating system is used to name, save, retrieve and maintain program and data files you

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create and use on your computer. As a resource manager, the operating system controls the flow
of information through your computer. Data accepted by the keyboard, seen on the display, or
sent to a printer are all under the control of the operating system.
To list some of the general things that the operating system does in the computer, we can come
up with the following:

 Managing storage media

 Booting
 User Interface
 Managing computer resources
 Managing files
 Managing tasks.
ii. Programming Language software (Development SW)
o Programming languages – are used to write programs. Programming
languages can generally be classified as low-level languages and high-level languages.
a. Low Level programming Languages
Under low-level language, we have machine languages and assembly languages.
 Machine language is the natural language of the computer. A program written in ma-
chine language is ready for immediate execution. Machine language is very difficult
to understand. A program written in machine language takes the form of strings of
zeros and ones. Even the simplest program is complex and lengthy. Moreover, each
computer type has its own machine language and thus a program written in machine
language for one computer may not run in another computer, i.e. machine language
programs are not portable.
 Assembly language consists of English-like abbreviations. It is easier to understand
than machine language. Programs written in assembly language need to be translated
into machine language before they can be executed. The program that translates as-
sembly language programs to machine language is called an assembler.
b. High Level programming Languages
High-level languages are English-like instructions. They are easier to learn than low-level
languages. Programs written in high-level language are called source codes and they must be
translated into machine language before they can run on a computer. After the translation, the
program in machine language is called object code.
There are three types of translators; assembler, interpreter, and compiler.
1. Compiler - A set of programs that translate the source code of higher-level software lan-
guages into machine language, or object code

 Advantages - fast

 Disadvantages - harder to write and debug

 Examples - Pascal, C, FORTRAN, and open script

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2. Assembler - An assembler is a software tool for translating assembly language into machine
language
3. Interpreter - An interpreter translates source code instructions, one instruction at a time, from
a higher level language such as BASIC into machine language
 Advantages - fairly easy to write, and easy to debug

 Disadvantage - SLOW

 Examples - basic, lisp

 Utility Software: is a program used to support, enhance, expand, and secure existing
programs and data in the computer system. Most common functions of system utilities
include:
 Back up: sometimes data files can get corrupt, or get accidentally deleted. In such a
case, data backups become very useful. A backup system utility is essential for those
organizations that want to keep their data intact.
 Data recovery: used to recover data. Since, disk drives or other hardware may fail,
these utilities are essential to recover data.
 Virus protection: Antivirus scans for the hard disk for any kind of virus.
 Disk management: includes defragmenting disks, data compression software, and
formatting disk tools.
2.2.2 Application Software: Software refers to the detailed set of instructions that direct the
computer to perform a certain task. Application software is software developed to do user
specific tasks such as word processing, spreadsheet and database management. It is developed
using the language software. Application software is a set of related programs designed to carry
out certain tasks that fulfill users’ specific needs.
Examples of application software are:
 Microsoft-Word (used for writing letters, reports, or other
documents).
 Microsoft-Excel ( used to perform calculations)
 Microsoft-Access (used for storing information)
 Internet Explorer (enables a user to access an internet)….etc

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