1.

Harappan Seal – A Distinctive Artefact

 The Harappan seal is one of the most distinctive objects of the Indus Valley
Civilisation.
 It is made of steatite, a type of soft stone.
 These seals often feature animal motifs and inscriptions in an undeciphered
script.
2. Sources of Information about the Harappan Civilisation
 Information about the Harappan people is derived from archaeological evidence
rather than written records.
 Important remains include:
o Houses – Indicate town planning and social structure.
o Pots – Reveal cultural and domestic practices.
o Ornaments – Show artistic skills and aesthetic sense.
o Tools – Reflect technological advancements.
o Seals – Provide insights into trade, religious beliefs, and administration.
2. Interpretation of Archaeological Material
 Archaeologists study artefacts to understand:
o Society – Social organization and lifestyle.
o Economy – Trade, agriculture, and crafts.
o Religion – Worship practices and beliefs.
o Technology – Skills in pottery, metallurgy, and construction.
4. Changing Interpretations
 The understanding of the Harappan civilisation evolves over time as new discoveries
are made.
 Early interpretations focused on urban planning and trade, while recent studies
explore climate change, decline theories, and cultural continuity.
5. Limitations and Unresolved Aspects
 Some aspects of Harappan life remain unknown, such as:
o The exact meaning of their script (still undeciphered).
o The role of political leadership and governance.
o Reasons for the decline of the civilisation.
 Certain aspects may never be fully understood due to the lack of written records.
Beginnings
1. Pre-Harappan Archaeological Cultures
 Before the Mature Harappan phase, several archaeological cultures existed in the
region.
 These cultures had distinct features, including:
o Unique pottery styles
o Evidence of agriculture and pastoralism
o Development of some crafts
2. Characteristics of Early Settlements
 Settlements were small compared to later Harappan cities.
 There were no large buildings, indicating a less complex social or administrative
structure.
3. Transition from Early to Mature Harappan Phase
 A significant break is observed between the Early Harappan and the Mature
Harappan civilisation.
 Evidence for this break includes:
o Large-scale burning at some sites.
o Abandonment of certain settlements.
  This suggests possible conflicts, environmental changes, or other disruptions
before the rise of the Mature Harappan phase.
Subsistence Strategies
1. Overlap Between Early and Mature Harappan Cultures
 The Mature Harappan culture developed in regions previously occupied by Early
Harappan cultures.
 These cultures shared common elements, particularly in subsistence strategies
(food production and consumption).
2. Harappan Diet – Plant-Based Foods
 The Harappans consumed a variety of plant-based foods.
 Evidence of diet comes from charred grains and seeds found at archaeological sites.
 These remains are studied by archaeo-botanists, experts in ancient plant remains.
 Main crops cultivated:
o Wheat and barley (staple grains)
o Lentils and chickpeas (pulses)
o Sesame (possibly for oil)
o Millets (mainly in Gujarat)
o Rice was found, but it was relatively rare.
3. Harappan Diet – Animal-Based Foods
 Harappans consumed domesticated and wild animals.
 Evidence comes from animal bones found at sites, studied by archaeo-zoologists
(also called zooarchaeologists).
 Domesticated animals:
o Cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig (likely used for meat, milk, and labor).
 Wild animals found at sites:
o Boar, deer, gharial (a type of crocodile) – it is unclear if Harappans hunted
them or obtained them from hunting communities.
 Other animal products:
o Fish and fowl (birds) were also part of their diet.
This shows that the Harappans had a diverse diet, relying on both agriculture and animal
husbandry, as well as possibly hunting and fishing.
Agricultural Technologies
1. Challenges in Understanding Harappan Agricultural Practices
 While grain remains provide evidence of agriculture, the exact farming techniques
remain unclear.
 Uncertainty exists about how crops were sown—whether seeds were broadcast
(scattered) on ploughed fields.
2. Evidence of Ploughing
 Representations of bulls on seals and terracotta figurines suggest that oxen were
used for ploughing.
 Terracotta models of ploughs have been found at:
o Cholistan (Pakistan)
o Banawali (Haryana, India)
 A ploughed field was discovered at Kalibangan (Rajasthan):
o This field had two sets of furrows at right angles, suggesting that two
different crops were grown together (intercropping).
3. Harvesting Tools
 Archaeologists debate which tools were used for harvesting:
o Stone blades set in wooden handles
o Metal tools
4. Irrigation and Water Management
 Most Harappan settlements were in semi-arid regions, indicating the need for
irrigation.
 Evidence of irrigation:
o Canals found at Shortughai (Afghanistan) suggest irrigation systems, but
similar evidence is lacking in Punjab and Sindh.
o Possibility of silted-up canals that no longer exist.
o Use of wells for drawing irrigation water.
o Water reservoirs at Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store
water for agriculture.
Conclusion
 Harappan agricultural techniques were advanced but not fully understood due to a
lack of direct evidence.
 Ploughing, intercropping, irrigation, and harvesting tools were likely used, but more
research is needed to confirm specific methods.
Mohenjodaro: A planned Urban Centre
1. Urban Centres – A Unique Feature of Harappan Civilisation
 The Harappan civilisation is notable for its well-planned urban centres.
 Mohenjodaro is the most famous site, but Harappa was the first to be discovered.
2. Division of the Settlement
 The city was divided into two sections:
1. Citadel (Smaller but Higher)
 Built on mud brick platforms, raising it above the rest of the city.
 Walled, separating it from the Lower Town.
2. Lower Town (Larger but Lower)
 Also walled, indicating planned urban development.
 Buildings were constructed on mud-brick platforms, serving as
foundations.
3. Large-Scale Labour Mobilisation
 Building platforms for structures required massive labour efforts.
 Estimates suggest that for foundation work alone, about four million person-days of
labour were needed.
4. Evidence of Urban Planning
 Pre-planned city layout: The city was carefully planned first and then constructed.
 Fixed building areas: Once platforms were built, construction was limited to specific
areas.
5. Standardisation in Construction
 Bricks followed a standard ratio across all Harappan settlements.
 Standard brick proportions:
o Length = 4 times the height
o Breadth = 2 times the height
 Bricks were either sun-dried or baked, ensuring uniformity.
Conclusion
 Harappan cities demonstrate advanced town planning, large-scale labour
organisation, and standardised construction techniques, highlighting a highly
developed urban civilisation.
Layng out drains
1. Well-Planned Drainage System
 One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was their carefully designed
drainage system.
  The Lower Town followed a structured layout with streets and drainage.
2. Grid Pattern of Streets
 Roads and streets were arranged in an approximate grid pattern.
 They intersected at right angles, creating a well-organized city layout.
3. Sequential Urban Planning
 Drainage system came first:
o Streets with covered drains were planned and constructed first.
o Only then were houses built along these streets.
 This suggests an advanced level of city planning and coordination.
4. Integration of Houses with Drainage
 Since domestic wastewater had to flow into the street drains, every house had to:
o Have at least one wall along a street.
o Connect its internal drainage to the larger street drainage system.
5. Significance of Urban Planning
 The existence of such a systematic drainage network indicates:
o Strong governance or administrative control over urban planning.
o Advanced knowledge of sanitation and waste disposal.
o A well-organized community effort to maintain cleanliness.
Conclusion
The Harappan drainage system reflects the civilisation’s remarkable urban planning
skills, ensuring hygiene, water management, and efficient waste disposal—an impressive
feat for an ancient society!
Domestic Architecture
1. Residential Buildings in the Lower Town (Mohenjodaro)
 Houses in the Lower Town followed a structured design.
 Many were built around a central courtyard, with rooms arranged on all sides.
2. Function of the Courtyard
 The courtyard was likely the main space for:
o Cooking
o Weaving
o Other daily activities, especially during hot and dry weather.
3. Privacy in Architecture
 Harappan houses displayed a clear concern for privacy:
o No windows on ground-level walls to prevent outsiders from looking in.
o Main entrances did not open directly into the interior or courtyard.
4. Well-Planned Sanitation System
 Each house had a private bathroom:
o Floors were paved with bricks for durability.
o Drains from the bathrooms connected to the street drains for efficient
wastewater disposal.
5. Multi-Storey Constructions
 Some houses had remains of staircases, indicating second storeys or rooftop access.
6. Presence of Wells in Houses
 Many houses had wells, often located in a room that could be accessed from the
outside.
 Purpose of these wells:
o Possibly for household use.
o May have been accessible to passers-by, indicating a sense of community
welfare.
  Around 700 wells have been estimated in Mohenjodaro, highlighting a well-
developed water supply system.
Conclusion
 Harappan houses were not only well-planned and private but also had an
advanced drainage and water supply system.
 The presence of wells, bathrooms, and multi-storey structures shows their
understanding of urban living and public convenience.
The Citadel
1. Special Public Structures on the Citadel
 The Citadel contained buildings likely used for public and administrative
purposes.
 Two important structures found here are:
1. The Warehouse
2. The Great Bath
2. The Warehouse
 A massive structure, probably used for storage and trade.
 Only the lower brick portions remain; the upper sections, likely made of wood,
have decayed over time.
3. The Great Bath – A Unique Structure
 A large rectangular tank situated in a courtyard, surrounded by a corridor on all
four sides.
 Access to the tank:
o Two flights of steps on the north and south led into the tank.
 Waterproofing Techniques:
o Bricks were set on edge for structural integrity.
o Gypsum mortar was used to make the tank watertight.
4. Drainage and Water Management
 A large well was located in a room nearby, possibly supplying water.
 Water from the tank was drained out through a massive drain.
5. Adjacent Bathing Complex
 Across a lane to the north, archaeologists found a smaller building with eight
bathrooms.
 Layout:
o Four bathrooms on each side of a central corridor.
o Drains from each bathroom connected to a main drain running along the
corridor.
6. Possible Function – Ritualistic Use?
 The uniqueness of the structure and its location in the Citadel suggest it may have
been used for ritualistic bathing.
 Scholars believe the Great Bath might have had religious or ceremonial
importance.
Conclusion
 The Great Bath and Warehouse highlight the Harappans’ advanced engineering,
water management, and public planning skills.
 The presence of well-structured public buildings suggests a highly organized and
possibly religiously inclined society.
Tracing Social Differences
Burials: 1. Methods Used by Archaeologists
 Archaeologists study burials to identify social or economic differences in ancient
societies.
  A comparison is often made with Egyptian pyramids, which served as royal burials
with vast wealth.
2. Harappan Burial Practices
 Dead bodies were generally laid in simple pits.
 Variations in burial pits:
o Some pits were lined with bricks, while others were plain.
o This might indicate social differences, but there is no certainty.
3. Grave Goods and Afterlife Beliefs
 Some graves contained pottery and ornaments, possibly suggesting a belief in an
afterlife.
 Jewellery was found in both male and female burials, indicating little gender-based
distinction.
4. Notable Burial Finds at Harappa (1980s Excavations)
 One male burial included:
o Three shell rings
o A jasper bead (semi-precious stone)
o Hundreds of micro beads
 In some burials, copper mirrors were found.
5. Limited Evidence of Wealth in Burials
 Unlike Egyptian tombs, Harappans did not bury large amounts of wealth with the
dead.
 This suggests that they may have had different beliefs about death and the afterlife,
or that wealth was not concentrated in funerary practices.
Conclusion
 Burial practices indicate some social distinctions, but they were not as extreme as
in Egyptian or Mesopotamian societies.
 The absence of extravagant burials suggests that wealth and status were not
prominently displayed in funerary customs.
Loong for Luxuries: 1. Classification of Artefacts
 Archaeologists classify artefacts into two categories:
o Utilitarian objects: Daily-use items made from common materials like
stone, clay, or metal.
 Examples: Querns (grinding stones), pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers
(body scrubbers).
 Found throughout settlements, indicating widespread use.
o Luxury objects: Made from rare, expensive materials or requiring
advanced technology.
 Example: Faience pots (made from ground sand, silica, colour, and
gum, then fired).
 Considered precious due to the complexity of production.
2. Ambiguities in Classification
 Some objects fall between utility and luxury.
o Example: Spindle whorls (used for spinning) made of faience—an essential
tool but crafted from a rare material.
o Raises a question: Were they utilitarian or luxury items?
3. Distribution of Artefacts
 Rare and valuable objects were mainly found in large settlements like
Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
 Smaller settlements like Kalibangan had few or no luxury items.
 Example of faience pots:
 o Miniature faience pots (possibly used as perfume bottles) were mostly found
in Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
o None found in Kalibangan, suggesting economic or social differences
between settlements.
4. Gold and Precious Materials
 Gold was rare and likely considered precious, just like today.
 All gold jewellery found at Harappan sites came from hoards (hidden treasures).
 This suggests:
o Gold was not widely used.
o It might have been owned by elites or used in trade and rituals.
Conclusion
 Social and economic differences existed in Harappan society.
 Larger cities had more luxury goods, indicating a possible hierarchical social
structure.
 Smaller settlements had fewer luxury items, suggesting they were either less
wealthy or had different priorities.
Finding out about craft production: 1. Chanhudaro – A Craft Production Centre
 A small settlement (less than 7 hectares) compared to Mohenjodaro (125
hectares).
 Almost exclusively devoted to craft production, including:
o Bead-making
o Shell-cutting
o Metal-working
o Seal-making
o Weight-making
2. Variety of Bead Materials and Shapes
 Materials used:
o Stones: Carnelian (red), Jasper, Crystal, Quartz, Steatite.
o Metals: Copper, Bronze, Gold.
o Other materials: Shell, Faience, Terracotta (burnt clay).
 Shapes of beads:
o Disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, segmented.
o Some made of two or more materials (e.g., stone with gold caps).
o Some decorated by incising, painting, or etching designs.
3. Craft Techniques and Specialization
 Steatite (soft stone): Easy to shape; sometimes made into a paste for molding.
 Micro beads of steatite: Mysterious production technique, still puzzling
archaeologists.
 Carnelian beads:
o Red colour obtained by firing yellowish raw material.
o Rough shapes chipped, flaked, ground, polished, and drilled.
 Specialized drills found at Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira.
4. Specialized Craft Centres
 Nageshwar and Balakot (near the coast) specialized in shell products:
o Bangles, ladles, inlay work.
o These products were distributed to other settlements.
 Chanhudaro and Lothal:
o Bead-making hubs, likely supplying Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
5. Trade and Distribution
  Finished products (beads, shells, etc.) from specialized centres were taken to large
cities.
 Suggests a well-organized trade network connecting urban centres.
Conclusion
 Harappans had a highly specialized and organized craft industry.
 Certain settlements focused on specific crafts, supporting urban economies.
 The trade of finished products between small and large settlements shows
economic integration.
Identifying centres of production: 1. Archaeological Indicators of Craft Production
To locate craft production centres, archaeologists look for:
✅ Raw materials: Stone nodules, whole shells, copper ore.
✅ Tools: Used for shaping, cutting, and finishing objects.
✅ Unfinished objects: Items that were abandoned during production.
✅ Rejects: Defective or broken objects discarded by artisans.
✅ Waste material: Scraps left behind from crafting activities.
2. Importance of Waste in Identifying Craft Sites
 Waste is a key indicator of craft work.
 Example:
o If shells or stones were cut, then leftover chips and fragments would be
discarded nearby.
o Sometimes, larger waste pieces were reused to make smaller objects.
o Tiny waste bits (too small to use) were left in the work area.
3. Craft Production in Large Cities
 Apart from small, specialized centres (e.g., Chanhudaro, Lothal),
o Large cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa also had craft workshops.
 Presence of craft-related waste in these cities suggests that craft production was
integrated into urban life.
4. Conclusion
 The Harappans had an advanced system of craft production, with both
specialized centres and urban workshops.
 The presence of waste material and unfinished objects helps archaeologists
reconstruct ancient industries.
Strategies for procuring materials
1. Variety of Materials Used in Craft Production
 Locally available: Clay, some stones
 Procured from distant places: Stone, timber, metals
2. Modes of Transport
✅ Land routes
 Bullock carts: Terracotta toy models suggest they were commonly used for
transporting goods and people.
✅ Water routes
 Riverine routes: Used along the Indus River and its tributaries for trade.
 Coastal routes: Likely used for long-distance trade with Mesopotamia and other
regions.
3. Significance of Transport in Harappan Economy
 Enabled the movement of raw materials to craft centres.
 Facilitated trade and commerce across settlements.
 Strengthened economic and cultural links with other civilizations.
Materials from the subcontinent and beyond:
1. Establishing Settlements Near Resources
✅ Shell → Nageshwar & Balakot
✅ Lapis Lazuli → Shortughai (Afghanistan)
✅ Carnelian, Steatite, Metal → Lothal (Near Gujarat & Rajasthan)
2. Sending Expeditions for Resources
 Copper → Khetri (Rajasthan)
 Gold → South India
Harappan artefacts, such as steatite microbeads, found in these regions suggest direct
contact and trade with local communities.
3. Trade & Interaction with Local Cultures
 Ganeshwar-Jodhpura Culture (Rajasthan)
o Distinct non-Harappan pottery
o Rich in copper objects → Likely supplied copper to Harappans
Contact with distant lands
Recent archaeological and textual evidence indicates that the Harappans engaged in long-
distance trade with Oman, Mesopotamia, and Bahrain.
1. Trade with Oman
✅ Copper Procurement
 Chemical analysis shows nickel traces in both Omani copper and Harappan
artefacts, suggesting a common source.
 Harappan storage jars (coated with black clay) found in Oman suggest possible
trade exchanges.
2. Trade with Mesopotamia
✅ Mesopotamian Texts (Third Millennium BCE)
 Mention copper from "Magan" → Likely Oman
 Mention trade with "Meluhha" → Possibly the Harappan region
 Products from Meluhha:
o Carnelian
o Lapis lazuli
o Copper
o Gold
o Wood varieties
✅ Harappan Artefacts Found in Mesopotamia
 Seals
 Weights
 Dice
 Beads
✅ Cultural Exchange
 Mesopotamian myth about Meluhha:
o Haja-bird (possibly the peacock) associated with royal palaces.
3. Trade Routes & Transportation
✅ Possible Sea Routes
 Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers.
 Depictions of ships & boats on Harappan seals indicate maritime trade.
Seals, Scripts, Weights
Seals and Sealings: ✅ Purpose of Seals & Sealings
 Security & Authenticity: Ensured goods were not tampered with during transit.
 Identity Verification: Impressions on clay indicated the sender’s identity.
✅ Process of Sealing
 1. Bag of goods prepared.
2. Mouth tied with a rope.
3. Wet clay affixed to the knot.
4. Seal pressed on clay → Created an impression.
5. If intact upon arrival → Bag was untampered.
✅ Significance in Trade & Administration
 Controlled transactions in long-distance trade.
 Official communication within Harappan settlements.
 Similar practices observed in Mesopotamia & Egypt, indicating cultural exchange.
An Enigmatic script: ✅ Features of Harappan Script
 Found on various objects: Seals, copper tools, pottery rims, tablets, jewelry, bone
rods, even an ancient signboard!
 Short inscriptions: The longest discovered text has only 26 signs.
 Not alphabetical: Estimated 375-400 symbols, making it too complex for an
alphabetic system.
 Direction of writing: Right to left (evidenced by spacing patterns).
 Animal motifs: Possibly conveyed meaning to those who could not read.
✅ Questions & Theories
 Could perishable materials (like palm leaves, cloth, or wood) have been used for
longer texts?
 Was literacy widespread among the Harappans, or was writing limited to elites and
traders?
Weights: ✅ Features of Harappan Weights
 Material: Made of chert stone, cubical in shape, and unmarked.
 Standardized System:
o Lower denominations: Followed a binary system (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32… up to
12,800).
o Higher denominations: Followed the decimal system.
 Purpose:
o Smaller weights were likely used for jewelry and beads.
o Larger ones for trade and taxation.
 Metal scale-pans have also been found, suggesting the use of balances.
✅ Significance
 Indicates a well-organized economic system.
 Suggests a focus on standardization and fairness in trade.
 Reflects Harappans’ mathematical skills and emphasis on precision.
Ancient Authority: Possible Organizing Authorities in Harappan Society
1. Centralized Governance or Administrative Elites
o The uniformity in bricks, seals, weights, and pottery indicates a standardized
system, possibly regulated by a central administration.
o Cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa may have had ruling councils or
bureaucratic groups managing trade, construction, and city planning.
2. Merchant and Trade Guilds
o The Harappans had an extensive trade network (with Mesopotamia, Oman,
and local regions).
o Powerful merchant guilds could have played a role in regulating economic
activities, including craft production and trade.
3. Religious or Ritual Leaders
 o Some scholars suggest that a priestly class might have had influence over
civic planning, similar to Mesopotamian temple priests.
o However, unlike Mesopotamia, there are no large temples or kingly statues,
making this theory uncertain.
4. Local and Regional Governance
o While cities followed a common urban plan, they might have been ruled by
local leaders or councils handling city-specific affairs.
o Dholavira’s water management system and Lothal’s dockyard suggest
decision-making at local levels.
Conclusion
The Harappan civilization likely functioned under a collective, organized system with
administrative elites, merchants, and possibly ritual specialists working together. There is no
evidence of a single king or dynasty, making it different from contemporary civilizations
like Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Palaces and kings: Theories on Harappan Political Organization
1. An Egalitarian Society (No Rulers)
o Some archaeologists suggest that Harappan society was classless, with no
central ruler.
o This is based on the absence of grand palaces, elaborate burials, or statues
of kings like those found in Mesopotamia or Egypt.
o However, it seems unlikely that such a vast and well-planned civilization
could function without leadership.
2. Multiple Regional Rulers
o This theory suggests that different cities like Harappa, Mohenjodaro,
Dholavira, and Lothal had separate rulers managing local affairs.
o There are some variations in town planning and architecture, which may
indicate semi-independent governance.
o However, the strong uniformity in artefacts, weights, and city planning
suggests some level of central coordination.
3. A Single Centralized State (Most Accepted Theory)
o The standardization of weights, seals, brick sizes, and city layouts across the
Indus region suggests a well-organized administrative system.
o Large-scale infrastructure projects like the Great Bath, dockyards (Lothal),
and extensive drainage systems indicate some form of central authority
overseeing construction.
o The presence of specialized craft production centers (e.g., Chanhudaro,
Lothal) and strategic settlements near raw material sources points to state-
controlled economic planning.
Conclusion
While we may never know the exact political system of the Harappans, the strongest
evidence supports the idea of a highly organized state with administrators rather than
kings. It is likely that a group of elites, merchants, and officials governed the civilisation
rather than a single ruler.
The End of the Civilisation
By c. 1800 BCE, most Mature Harappan sites were abandoned, and a significant
transformation took place. The once-thriving urban civilization declined, and new settlements
emerged in Gujarat, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh.
Key Indicators of Decline
1. Disappearance of Distinctive Features
o Standardized weights, seals, beads, and writing vanished.
 o Long-distance trade and craft specialization declined.
o Large public structures were no longer built.
2. Deterioration in Material Culture
o House construction quality worsened.
o Fewer materials were used, and a rural way of life emerged.
o The cities were no longer well-planned, and small settlements replaced urban
centers.
3. Possible Causes of Decline
o Climatic change – A shift in monsoon patterns may have led to water
scarcity.
o Deforestation – Overuse of wood for fuel and construction could have
affected resources.
o Excessive floods – Repeated flooding in cities like Mohenjodaro may have led
to abandonment.
o Shifting or drying up of rivers – The Saraswati River is believed to have
dried up, affecting agriculture.
o Overuse of land – Intensive farming may have exhausted soil fertility.
End of a Unified State?
 The disappearance of seals, standardized weights, and writing suggests that the
Harappan state structure collapsed.
 Local cultures replaced the centralized system, and trade networks weakened.
 New cities did not emerge until nearly a millennium later, in a completely different
region.
Discovering the Harappan Civilisation:
Discovery of the Harappan Civilization
For centuries, the ruins of the Harappan civilization lay forgotten. Locals occasionally found
strange artifacts, but their significance remained unknown. It was only in the mid-19th
century that systematic archaeological interest began.
Cunningham’s Approach (Mid-19th Century)
 Alexander Cunningham, the first Director-General of the ASI, focused on early
historic periods (6th century BCE – 4th century CE).
 He relied heavily on Chinese Buddhist pilgrims' accounts to locate settlements.
 His main interest was in inscriptions and cultural artifacts, often neglecting sites
that did not fit his historical framework.
 Harappa was not mentioned in historical texts, so it did not attract his attention.
 He received a Harappan seal from an Englishman but failed to recognize its
antiquity, mistakenly trying to place it within a familiar timeline.
Why Did Cunningham Miss Harappa's Importance?
 He, like many others, believed Indian history began with cities in the Ganga
Valley.
 Harappan artifacts did not fit within his established historical period.
 He was more interested in inscriptions and historical texts rather than unknown
material culture.
Significance
Cunningham's oversight delayed the recognition of the Indus Valley Civilization. It was
only in the 1920s, under John Marshall, that Harappa and Mohenjodaro were identified as
part of an ancient civilization older than the Ganga Valley cities.
A new old civilization
Key Archaeological Discoveries and Contributions
Daya Ram Sahni (1920s)
  Discovered seals at Harappa, found in layers much older than the Early Historic
period.
 This indicated the existence of an ancient civilization predating known Indian
history.
Rakhal Das Banerji (1920s)
 Discovered similar seals at Mohenjodaro, confirming that both sites were part of the
same civilization.
John Marshall (1924) – Defining Moment
 Announced the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization to the world.
 Linked the civilization to Mesopotamian seals, proving it was contemporaneous
with Mesopotamia.
 Brought professional archaeology to India, emphasizing patterns of everyday life,
not just grand structures.
John Marshall’s Excavation Methods – Strengths & Weaknesses
✅ Strengths:
 Systematic excavation of sites, bringing credibility to Indian archaeology.
 Recognized the Indus Valley Civilization as a major ancient culture.
 First to focus on understanding daily life and urban planning in excavations.
❌ Weaknesses:
 Ignored stratigraphy, leading to loss of precise chronological sequencing.
 Excavated in horizontal layers, grouping artifacts from different time periods
together.
Impact on Indian History
As historian S.N. Roy wrote, “Marshall left India three thousand years older than he had
found her.” This discovery reshaped Indian history, proving that urban life existed in the
subcontinent as early as 2600 BCE.
New techniques and questions:
1. R.E.M. Wheeler’s Contributions (1944 Onwards)
 Became Director-General of the ASI in 1944.
 Rectified John Marshall’s excavation flaws by focusing on stratigraphy (layer-by-
layer analysis).
 Brought military precision to archaeological methods.
 Introduced scientific excavation techniques to improve accuracy.
2. Impact of Partition on Harappan Archaeology (1947)
 Most major Harappan sites (Harappa, Mohenjodaro) went to Pakistan after partition.
 This led to intensified efforts by Indian archaeologists to discover Harappan sites in
India.
3. New Harappan Sites Discovered in India
 Kutch (Gujarat): Extensive surveys revealed numerous settlements.
 Punjab & Haryana: Significant discoveries added to the list of Harappan sites.
 Major Indian Harappan sites discovered:
o Kalibangan (Rajasthan)
o Lothal (Gujarat)
o Rakhigarhi (Haryana)
o Dholavira (Gujarat) – One of the largest and most well-planned Harappan
cities.
4. Modern Challenges & Evolving Research Focus
 Cultural sequencing: Understanding the timeline of Harappan culture.
 Settlement logic: Examining why sites were located in specific areas.
  Artifact analysis: Studying pottery, seals, tools, and other objects to decode
Harappan life.
5. International Interest in Harappan Archaeology (1980s-Present)
 Collaborative research by Indian and international scholars at Harappa &
Mohenjodaro.
 Use of advanced scientific techniques such as:
o Surface exploration to detect buried structures.
o Material analysis (clay, stone, metal, organic remains).
o DNA analysis of human and animal remains.
 Ongoing excavations promise new insights into Harappan civilization.
Problems of piecing together the past
1. Harappan Script vs. Material Evidence
 The Harappan script remains undeciphered, making it difficult to understand the
civilization through written records.
 Instead, archaeologists rely on material remains such as:
o Pottery – Indicates cultural practices, daily life, and trade.
o Tools – Shows craftsmanship, occupations, and technological advancements.
o Ornaments – Reveals social hierarchy, fashion, and trade networks.
o Household objects – Provides insights into daily life and domestic activities.
2. Survival of Materials
 Organic materials like cloth, leather, wood, and reeds decompose quickly in tropical
climates.
 Durable materials such as stone, burnt clay (terracotta), and metal survive over
time.
 Objects found today are often made of non-perishable materials.
3. Limitations in Archaeological Findings
 Most objects discovered are either:
o Broken or discarded (suggesting they were no longer useful).
o Lost or hoarded items (accidental finds rather than common artifacts).
 Many valuable materials were recycled, limiting what is available for study today.
Classifying Finds:
1. Classification of Artefacts
 Material-Based Classification
o Artefacts are categorized based on their material:
 Stone, clay, metal, bone, ivory, etc.
 Function-Based Classification
o Determining the purpose of an artefact is complex:
 Was it a tool, an ornament, or ritualistic?
 Some artefacts had multiple uses (e.g., beads as ornaments or ritual
items).
2. Methods for Understanding Artefact Function
 Resemblance to Modern Objects
o Beads, querns (grinding stones), pots, and stone blades are easier to identify.
 Context of Discovery
o Where an artefact is found helps in interpretation:
 Household items – Found in homes.
 Religious/Ritual objects – Found in temples or graves.
 Industrial tools – Found in kilns or workshops.
3. Use of Indirect Evidence
 Some materials do not survive (e.g., cotton textiles).
  Clothing evidence is inferred from:
o Depictions in sculptures, figurines, and paintings.
o Traces of cotton found in some sites.
4. Importance of Context and Comparison
 Artefacts gain meaning when placed in a broader cultural sequence.
 Example:
o The first Harappan seal was not understood initially.
o Its significance became clear after comparing it with Mesopotamian finds.
Problems of interpretation:
1. Challenges in Reconstructing Religious Practices
 Archaeologists often struggle to determine the religious significance of objects.
 Objects that seem unusual or unfamiliar are sometimes assumed to be religious.
2. Interpretation of Artefacts as Religious Objects
 Terracotta figurines of women (heavily jewelled, elaborate head-dresses) →
Assumed to be Mother Goddesses.
 Stone statues of seated men (e.g., "Priest-King") → Thought to have ritual
importance.
 Structures like the Great Bath and fire altars (Kalibangan & Lothal) → Assigned
ritual significance.
3. Interpretation of Seals and Symbols
 Some seals depict ritual scenes → Possibly linked to religious beliefs.
 Plant motifs on seals → Interpreted as evidence of nature worship.
 Animals on seals (e.g., unicorn-like creature) → May represent mythical or
composite beings.
 "Proto-Shiva" depiction on seals (cross-legged figure with animals) →
o Assumed to be an early form of Shiva (Pashupati).
o However, the Rigveda (1500-1000 BCE) mentions Rudra, but not as
Pashupati or a yogi.
o Some scholars suggest this might depict a shaman instead.
 Conical stone objects → Identified as lingas (phallic symbols of Shiva).
4. Assumptions in Interpreting Religious Practices
 Archaeologists compare later traditions (e.g., Hinduism) with Harappan finds.
 Moving from the known (present) to the unknown (past) is common but
speculative.
 Objects like pots and querns are easy to relate to modern counterparts,
o But religious symbols require more caution in interpretation.
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