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Hydro carbons are compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Hydrocarbons are classified into the two classed (1) Aliphatic compounds and (2) aromatic compounds.

Aliphatic compounds are either acyclic or cyclic.

Acyclic compounds are straight chain or branched chain hydrocarbons. They the alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.E.g

(a)
H H H H

H C C C C H

H H H H

In cyclic compounds the carbon atom form a ring e.g

H H

C C

H C H

H H
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EVALUATION

1. Explain the term ‘catenation’

2. What is aliphatic hydrocarbon?

PERIOD 2 AND 3: HOMOLOGOUS SERIES AND FUNCTIONAL GROUP

Definition: A homologous series is a family of organic compounds which follows a regular structural pattern, in which each
successive member differs in its molecular formula by a – CH2 group.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HOMOLOGOUS SERIES AND NAMING-IUPAC

1. All members of a series share a general molecular formula.

2. Each successive member of a series differs in its molecular formula by the addition of a----- CH2 group and in its relative
molecular mass by an increase of 14.
3. The physical properties of the members in a series change gradually as the number of carbon atoms per molecule increase.
4. All members of a series can usually be prepared by using the same general method.
5. The members of a series show similar chemical properties.

6. All members of the same family have the same functional group.
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Functional group

Functional group is anatom , bonds or group of atoms that identifies an organic compound and determines its chemical properties.

Homologous series General molecular formula General structural formula Functional group
1. alkanes CnH2n+2 R-H
2. Alkene CnH2n
C=C

Alkyne CnH2n-2
- C≣C-

Haloalkanes CnH2n-1x K-X -X

Alkanol CnH2n+1OH R-O-H -OH

Alkanoic acid CnH2n+1COOH R-COOH -COOH

Alkanoate CnH2n+1COOCnH2n+1 R-COOR1 -COOR
Alkanal CnH2n+1CHO RCHO -CHO
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Alkanone CnH2n+1COCnH2n+1 RCOR -COR

Amide CnH2n+1CONH2 RCONH2 -CONH2
Amine CnH2n+1NH2 RNH2 -NH2
Nitrile CnH2n+1CN RCN -CN

PERIOD 4: SATURATED HYDROCARBON-ALKANES

ALKANES

The alkanes are hydrocarbons with the general molecular formula CnH2n+2, where n starts from 1. They are saturated hydro carbons.
There are only single covalent bonds in their structures. The sources of alkanes are crude oil, coal, marsh gas and natural gas. Evey
carbon atom in alkane is sp3 hybridized

Examples of the first five members of the series are shown below.

FORMULA NAME STRUCTURAL FORMULA

CH4 Methane
H

H C H

H
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C2H6 Ethane
H H

H C C H

H H

C3H8 Propane

THE ALKYL GROUPS: The general term alkyl group includes all groups derived from the alkanes by the loss of hydrogen atom.
They are given the general symbol, R. Example of the alkyl groups.
FORMULA NAME
CH3- Methyl
C2H5- Ethyl
C3H7 Propyl
C4H9 Butyl
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IUPAC NOMENCLATURE

Rules for naming organic compounds

1. Take the longest continuous carbon chain as the root hydrocarbon and name according to the number of carbon atms present.

2. Number the carbon atom in the root hydrocarbon from the end which give the least number to the suffix and then the prefix.

3. Indicate any substituents by prefixes proceeded by number to show their positions on the carbon chain.

4. When substituents ae present, they should be named based on the one that come first alphabetically.

METHANE

Occurrence: Methane is the major constituent of natural gas, petroleum gas and, is usually known as Marsh gas. It is also found in
poorly ventilated coal mines as fire dump.

LABORATORY PREPARATION
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Procedure: A finely powdered mixture of equal amount of anhydrous sodium ethanoate and soda lime is heated in a hard glass test
tube. The methane evolved is collected over water.

Equation of reaction is shown below:

CH3COONa(s) + NaOH(s)→ Na2CO3(s) + CH4 (g)

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡

To prepared other members, the same method is applied. For example the preparation of ethane required heating sodium
propanoate according to the equation below:

CH3CH2COONa → Na2CO3 + C2H6

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡

PROPERTIES OF ALKANES

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. The first members (i.e. C1 –C4) are colourless gases. From (C5 –C17) are colourless liquids. Higher members greater than C17 are
colourless, wax like solids.
2. They are insoluble in water
3. Branched alkanes have lower boiling and melting points than their corresponding straight chain alkanes. Braching makes the
molecules spherical and therefore reduces the intermolecular forces between the molecules. For example, the boiling point of 2-
methylpropane is lower than that of the straight chain isomer butane.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
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Alkanes are generally inert but they can undergo two types of reactions: combustion and substitution reactions

1. Combustion reaction. Alkanes burn in air (or oxygen) to form CO2 and H2O (steam). The reaction is exothermic e.g
Combustion of Methane, CH4
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)→ 2H2O(g) +CO2(g)

2. Substitution reaction.: Alkanes undergo substitution reaction with halogens. The reaction of methane with chlorine takes place
in the presence of ultra-violet light which serves as catalyst. The continues until all hydrogen atoms in methane are replaced with
chlorine
CH4(g) + Cl2(g)→ CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)

CH3Cl + Cl2→ CH2Cl2 + HCl

CH2Cl2 + Cl2→ CHCl3 + HCl

CHCl3 + Cl2→ CCl4 + HCl

Uses of methane

1. It is mainly used fuel

2. It is used to make carbon black, carbon (iv) sulphide, trichloromethane or tetrachloromethane.

EVALUATION

1. Give reasons why soda lime is used instead of pure sodium hydroxide in the laboratory preparation of methane

2. Explain why the boiling pint of 2-methylbutane is lower than that of pentane.
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3. What is the product of complete chlorination of ethane.

GENERAL EVALUATION

Objective test

1. Exceptionally large number of carbon compounds is essentially due to the ability of (a) carbon to catenate liberally (b) various
groups to catenate (c) nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus and the halogens to catenate with themselves(d)hydrocarbons to dominate
other groups

2. The name of C(CH3)4 is (a) Butane (b) tetramethylbutane (c) methylpropane (d) 2-methylpropane

3. The following are generally characteristics of carbon except (a) covalent nature and non polar (b) low melting and low boiling
points (c) low reactivity with other elements except oxygen and the halogens (d) hydrogen bond in petrol

5. Which of these compounds exhibit resonance? (a) Ethanol (b) Benzene (c) propylene (d) butyne

ESSAY QUESTIONS
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1. Draw a labelled diagram to show how methane is prepared in the laboratory

2. State four characteristics of a homologous series

3. Draw the structures of (a) 2,3 –dimethylbutane (b) 2,2,3-trimethylhexane

WEEK 8

TOPIC: HYDROCARBONS

CONTENTS:

1. ISOMERISM-STRUCTURAL AND GEOMETRIC

2. ALKENE-IUPAC NOMENCLATURE, METHOD OF PREPARATION, PROPERTIES AND USES
3. ALKYNE-IUPAC NOMENCLATURE, METHOD OF PREPARATION, PROPERTIES AND USES
4. AROMATIC HYDROCARBON: BENZENE-PROPERTIES AND USES

ISOMERISM
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Definition: Isomerism is the existence of two or more compounds (known as isomers) with the same molecular formulae but
different molecular structures

ISOMERISM IN ALKANES

1. Structural isomerism in alkanes is obtained by branchind the straight chain isomer.

(a) Draw the isomers of the compound with molecular formula

(i) C4H10

CH3CH2CH2CH3 (butane) CH3CH(CH3)CH3 2-methylpropane

(ii) C5H12 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 Pentane CH3CH(CH3)CH2CH2 2-methylbutane CH3CH(CH3)2CH3 2,2-dimethypropane
GEOMETRIC ISOMERISM
This is the existence of of organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different spatial arrangement of compound
atoms. Geometric isomers have similar chemical properties but different physical [Link] the cis-isomers and trans-
isomers. Geometric isomerism is common in alkenes.
ALKENES
The alkenes are the homologous series with the general molecular formula CnH 2n; n starts from 2. They are unsaturated
hydrocarbons due to the double bond in their structures.

ISOMERISM IN ALKENES

1. Isomers of C4H8
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2. Isomers of C5H10

H H H H H

H C C C C = C H
Pent- 1 ene CH3 (CH2)2 = CHCH2
H H H

H H H H H

H C C C C = C H

H H CHH3 CH2CH = CHCH3 Pent – 2 - ene

CH3CH2C(CH3) = CH2

2 – methylbut -1-ene
H H H H H

H C C C C = C H

H H

H C H

Note: The carbon atoms forming the straight chain is numbered from the carbon closest to the double bond.
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Laboratory preparation of Ethene

Ethene gas

Ethene is prepared in the laboratory by the dehydration of ethanol by concentrated tetraoxosulphate(vi). Equations for the reaction

Stage 1: C2H5OH(L) + H2SO4(aq) → C2H5HSO4(aq) + H2O(L)

170𝑜 𝐶
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Stage 2: C2H5HSO4(aq)→ C2H4(g) + H2SO4(aq)

PROPERTIES OF ETHENE

Physical properties

1. Ethane is a colourless gas with a faint sweetish smell.

2. It is sparingly soluble in water.
3. It is slightly less dense than air.
4. It has no action on litmus paper.

Chemical properties

1. Ethene undergoes polymerization reaction e.g

nCH2 = CH2→ (CH2 - CH2)n polythene

2. Combustion reaction: Ethene or any alkene burn in air (or oxygen) to form CO2 and H2O e.g

C2H4(g) + 3O2→2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

3. Addition reaction: An addition reaction involves the direct addition of an attacking reagent across the double bend or triple bond
of an unsaturated compound to form a saturated compound or at least one in which the degree of saturation is increased.
Example of addition reaction between
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(i) ethane and hydrogen.

C2H4(g) + H2(g)→ C2H6(g)

(ii) Ethene and chlorine

C2H4(g) + Cl2→ C2H4Cl2

Uses of Ethene

1. It is the main source of ethanol

2. It is a raw material for making polyethane.
3. Low concentration of ethane is used to ripen fruits.

Test for Unaturation

Alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated compounds.

Unsaturated compounds

1. Decolourized reddish brown bromine water or bromine.

2. Charge purple KMnO4(aq) to colourless

EVALUATION

1. What is the function of the empty flask during the preparation of ethane?
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2. What is geometric isomerism? Give examples

3. Draw and name five possible isomers of hexane, C6H14.

1. Name these structures

H H H H H

H C C C C C H

H H H

C H HC H

H H

H H H H

H C C C C H

H H H

H C H

H
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PERIOD 3: THE ALKYNES

The alkynes are a homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbon series of molecular formula of CnH2n -2 where n starts from 2

The examples of the first five members of the alkynes series are shown below.

Chemical Formula Name Structural Formula

C2H2 Ethyne H-C≡C-H
C3H4 Propyne H-C ≣C-CH3
C4H6 Butyne H─C≡C─CH2─CH3
C5H8 Pentyne H3─C─CH2─CH2─C≡C─H

Note: The number of carbon atoms in alkynes starts from the last carbon closest to the triple bonds.

ETHYNE
LABORATORY PREPARATION OF ETHYNE
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Procedure:Ethyne is prepared in the laboratory by the action of cold water on calcium carbide as shown in the diagram above. The
process is exothermic
Equation for the Reaction

CaC2(s) + 2H2O (l)→Ca(OH)2(aq) + C2H2(g)

PROPERTIES OF ETHYNE

a. Physical Properties
1. It is a colourless gas with sweet smell
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2. Sparingly soluble in water

3. Slightly less dense than air.
4. Unstable and may explode if compressed to liquid
b. Chemical Properties: Like any other alkyne, ethyne undergoes combustion, addiotion and reactions. Ethyne also undergoes
polymerization reactions and substitute reactions.

1. Polymerization reaction Ethyne

3C2H2(g)→ C6H6(L)

2. Combustion reaction of [Link] burns in oxygen to form CO2 and steam.

2C2H2(g) + 5O2→ 4CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

3. Addition reaction of Ethyne

a. Ethyne reacts with hydrogen to form.

i. C2H2(g) + H2(g) →C2H4(g)

ii. C2H2(g) + 2H2(g) → C2H6(g)

b. With halogens e.g with chlorine

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C2H2(g) + 2Cl2(g)→ C2H2Cl4

c. With hydrogen halides

C2H2(g + 2HCl2(g)→ C2H2Cl2

4. Substitution Reaction: Since ethyne is a terminal alkyne, it can react with ammoniacal solutions of copper(i)chloride and silver
trioxonitrate(v) at room temperature as shown below:
a. With ammonical copper(i)chloride solution a reddish-brown precipitate is formed

C2H2(g) + 2CuCl(aq)→ Cu2C2(s) + 2HCl(aq)

b. With ammonical solution of silvertrioxonitrate(v) solution a yellowish white precipitate is formed

C2H2(g) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Ag2C2(s) + 2HNO3(aq)

USES OF ETHYNE
1. As fuel in lamps such as miner’s camps
2. Ethyne is mixed with oxygen to produce a very hot frame called oxy-ethyne flame used for cutting and welding metals.
3. Ethyne is a source of ethanol, and solvents used in industry and in dry cleaning e.g 1,1,2 – trichloroethen and 1,1,2,2 -
tetrachloroethene .

EVALUATION:
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1. State three physical properties of ethyne

2. Show how you will distinguish between these gases: ethane, ethane and ethyne
3. Describe the method of preparation of ethyne
Read about types of alkanols from page 540 of new certificates chemistry by Osei Yaw Ababio.

PERIOD 4: :AROMATIC HYDROCARBON

BENZENE

Benzene is obtained from the destructive distillation of coal and also from Naptha.

Structure: August Kekule proposed the structure of benzene in 1865 to be

In 1945, the concept of resonance was used to explain the structure of benzene

Resonance occurs when two equivalent forms of a compound are in equilibrium.

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The real structure of benzene is represented as a regular hexagon with an inscribe circle, indicating that the double bonds are
shifting at all times. The ring also shows that the six electrons involved in the double bonds are moving around the six carbon atoms
in benzene.

Benzene C6 H6

PROPERTIES OF BENZENE

A. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Benzene is a colourless liquid with a sweet smell.

2. It is insoluble in water.

3. It has a boiling point of 800C

B. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. Benzene undergoes substitution reaction e.g. when Benzene reacts with chlorine
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2. Benzene also undergoes addition reaction e.g

+ 3H2(g) Ni
1800C
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H H
C

H H
C C

H H

H H

C C

H C H

H H

Cyclohexane is formed when a mixture of benzene vapour and hydrogen are passed over a nickel catalyst 1899C.

EVALUATION

What is resonance? Explain using the structure of Benzene

GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST:

1. Which of the following decolourizes bromine water? (a) propane (b) ethanol (c) thene (d) methanoic acid

2. Hydration of propene gives (a) propane (b) propan-2-ol (c) propan-1-ol (d) benzene
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3. Which of the following gases is used in mariner’s lamp? (a) ethane (c) ethane (c) ethyne (d) ethanol

4. Hydrogenation of benzene in the presence of nickel catalyst at 180 oC produces (a) hexane (b) cyclohexene (c) cyclohexane (d)
methylbenzene

5. Dehydration of propanol produces (a) propene (b0 propane (c) propyne (d) propanoic acid

ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. Write an equation to show addition reaction between ethyne and hydrogenbromide to illustrate laboratory preparation of
ethane.
2. Write an equation to shown the reaction ethane with conc H2SO4
3. Write the general formula for the alkynes. How would you prepare ethyne in the laboratory.
4. Draw the possible isomers of the compound with molecular formula C7H1

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read about test for un-saturation on page 537 of New School chemistry by Osei Yaw Ababio.

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read about Alkanols on page 539 of new School chemistry by Osei Yaw Ababio

WEEKEND ACTIVITY
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From the internet find out why terminal alkynes can form a precipitate with ammonicalcopper (i) chloride solution and non
terminal alkynes cannot.

WEEK: 9

TOPIC: ALKANOLS
CONTENT:
[Link] AND TYPES OF ALKANOLS
2. LABORATORY AND INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF ALKANOLS,
3. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANOLS
4. LABORATORY TEST AND USES OF ALKANOLS.

PERIOD 1: CLASSES AND TYPES OF ALKANOLS

CLASSES OF ALKANOLS
There are three classes of alkanols – primary, secondary and tertiary.
1. Primary (𝟏𝒐 ) alkanols: These have only one alkyls group attached to the carbon atom that carries the hydroxyl group e.g.
C2H5OH,C4H9OH etc. Example:C2H5OH,
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2. Secondary (𝟐𝒐 ) alkanols: These have two alkyls attached to the carbon that carries the hydroxyl group [Link]:CH3 CH2 CH
(OH) CH3 (Botan - 2- ol)

WWW

3. Tertiary (𝟑𝒐 ) Alkanols: These have three alkyl group attached to the carbon atom that carries the hydroxyl group. Example:
C (CH3)3OH (2-methylpropan-2-ol).
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2. TYPES OF ALKANOLS

1. Trihydric alkanols: These are alkanols with three(3) OH groups per molecule e.g. propane-1, 2, 3-triol

2. Dihydric alkanols: These contain 2 OH groups per molecule e.g. ethane-1, 2-diol

3. Monohydric alkanols: These contain only one(1) OH group per molecule e.g. ethanol, C2H5OH, etc.

They have the general molecular formula CnH2n+1OH. This is sometimes written as ROH. Where R stands for an alkyl group
Examples of the first five members of the group are:
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Chemical Formula Name Structural Formula

CH3OH Methanol

C2H5OH Ethanol

C3H7OH Propanol
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C4H9OH Butanol

C5H11OH Pentanol

PERIOD 2: LABORATORY AND INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF ALKANOLS

Ethanol is prepared by the following methods.
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1. Hydrolysis of ethyl ethanoate in hot, dilute potassium hydroxide.

2. Hydrolysis of monochloroethane in the presence of dilute sodium hydroxide.

3. Hydration of ethene. A mixture of ethene and steam with tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid as a catalyst is heated to a temperature of
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒐 𝑪 and a Pressure of 100 atmospheres.

4. Reduction of ethanal with nascent hydrogen

CH3CHO + 2[𝑯] → CH3CH2OH
Ethanal Ethanol
The reaction takes place in the presence of platinum catalyst.
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INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF ALKANOLS (ETHANOL) BY FERMENTATION

[Link] is the slow decomposition by micro –organisms of large organic molecules (such as starch) into smaller molecules
(such as ethanol).
Preparation of Ethanol by Fermentation
Process: The starch granules from any starchy food e.g. rice, maize, yam etc are extracted by crushing and pressure cooling.
1. They are then treated with malt at 500C to 600C for an hour.
2. Malt which contains enzymes DIASTASE is added. Diastase converts starch to maltose
3. Yeast which contains enzymes maltase and zymase is added at room temperature.
Enzymes maltase converts maltose to glucose. zymase decomposes glucose to ethanol and carbon (IV) oxide
(alkanol)
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Fractional distillation of the ethanol obtained by fermentation is carried out for further concentration and purification.
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EVALUATION
Starting from potatoes explain how ethanol can be prepared by fermentation.

PERIOD 3: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANOLS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL
Ethanol
1. is readily soluble in water;
2. is has no effect on litmus;
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3. is colourless and volatile;

4. is liquid at room temperature;
5. Smells characteristically and tastes sharply; and
6. boil at a temperature of 78𝑜 𝑐

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANOLS

1. Combustion reaction: Alkanols undergo combustion reaction to form CO2 and steam.
C2H5OH(aq) + 3O2(g)→ 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)
2. Esterification reaction: Alkanols react withalkanoic acid to produce esters and water. The process is reversible and is catalyzed
with concentrated H2SO4 acid e.g.
3. Oxidation reaction: (a) primary alkanol react with oxidizing agents to form alkanals oxidizing agents are acidified KMnO4 (aq) or
K2Cr2O7(aq)

Oxidation of primary alkanols with excess oxidizing agen gives alkanoic acid. Oxidation of ethanol in the presence of excess
acidified KMnO4(aq) gives ethanoic acid.
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4(𝑎𝑞)
CH3CH2OH → CH3COOH
Generally primary alkanols are oxidized to alkanals (as in equation (1) above) and then finally to alkanoic acids (as in equation (ii)
above) if excess oxidizing agent is used. Secondary alkanols are oxidized to Alkanones e.g.
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Tertiary alkanols are not oxidized at all.

3. Dehydration Reaction: Alkanols undergo dehydration reactions as follows with concentrated H2SO4 acid. A dehydration agent
removes the elements of water from a substance and changes the chemical nature of that substance. Dehydration of alkanol at
170oCgives alkene..So, ethanol is dehydrated to ethane.

But when alkanol is in excess and the reaction is carried out at 140oC, alkoxyalkane is formed. For example dehydration of excess
ethanol at 140oC giveethoxyethane.

- H2O
(alkanol)

4. Ethanol and 2-ol alkanol( that is an alkanol that has methyl group bonded to the carbon atom that carries the hydroxyl group)
react with mixture iodine in sodium hydroxide to give a yellow precipitate with antiseptic smell. This called iodoform test. The
methyl group is converted to tri-iodomethane(iodoform
𝐼2 𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
CH3CH2OH → HCOONa + CHI3
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Propan-2-o, butan-2-ol etc give positive iodoform test. But propan-1-ol does no give positive iodoform test because ethyl group is
attached to the carbon that carries the hydroxyl group.l
Period 4: LABORATORY TEST AND USES OF ALKANOLS
TEST FOR ALKANOLS
Addethanoic acid to the unknown solution, then add few drops of concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid and heat gently. Afruity or
fragrance smell indicates the presence of alkanol in the unknown solution.
Lucas reagent can also be used to distinguish between the classes of alkanols. When Lucas reagent (a solution of zinc chloride in
hydrochloric acid) is added to alkanol, if tertiary alkanol is present, a white precipitate is formed immediately (te solution becomes
cloudy), a secondary alkanol will give a white precipitate in five minutes while a primary alkanol will not give a white precipitate in
five minutes.
1. Useful as an important solvent to dissolve perfumes, drugs, flavoring extracts etc.
2. As fuel either by itself or mixed with petrol in racing cars or rockets.
3. As anti-freeze in automobile radiators
4. Use in alcoholic beverages [Link] etc.
5. As a preservative for biological specimens.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST:
1. Functional group for the alkanol is
(a) CnH2n +1OH (b) CnH2n -2 (c) carboxylic group (d) hydroxyl group
2. Primary alkanols are oxidized to carboxylic acid; secondary alkanols are oxidized to alkanones, while tertiary alkanols are (a)
oxidized to alkanols (b) oxidized to mixture of alkanes (c) oxidized to alkanol (d) not oxidized.
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3. The solubility of alkanols in water is due to (a) their covalent nature (b) hydrogen bonding (c) their low building point (d) their
low freezing point
4. the general molecular formulae for the alkanols is (a)CnH2n+2OH (b) CnH2n+1OH (c) CnH2n+4OH (d) CnH2n-2OH
ESSAY QUESTIONS:
1. Use equations only to explain the process of fermentation of starchy food to obtain ethanol
2. Write an equation to show esterification reaction of ethanol.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read about fermentation of starchy food to prepare ethanol on page 541 of new School chemistry by Osei Yaw Ababio

WEEK END ACTIVITY

Take any bottled juice; place it under the sun for 1 or 2 days. Open it and taste it. What do you observe?

PREREADING ASSIGNMENT
Read the whole term’s work.
WEEK 10Revisions
WEEK 11 Examinations
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8. Calcium: (i) Extraction, properties, its compounds and uses (ii) Aluminum’s Extraction, properties, its compounds and
uses.

9. Tin: (i) Extraction (ii) Uses of tin (iii) Transition metals – members of first transition series (a) General characteristics and
properties of transition elements (b) Extraction of copper and its uses.

10. Iron: (i) Relative abundance of iron ore in nature (ii) Physical and chemical properties of iron (iii) Extraction of iron
from its ore (iv) Rusting of iron and its prevention (v) Alloys.

11. Revision.

12. Examination.

13. Examination.

WEEK 1
ALKANOIC ACIDS
Alkanoic acids are compound containing a carbonyl group attached to the hydroxyl group (-OH). Alkanoic acids
have a functional group of O
– C – OH and belongs to homologous series with general
molecular formula of CnH2n+1COOH. Where 1,2,3,4 ………….. for successive member of n. One of the members of
the series is ethanoic acid with general formula CH3COOH. The names are derived by replacing the – ane in the
parent alkanes with – oic acid.

NAMING OF ALKANOIC ACIDS

The formular of individual members of alkanoic acids are obtained by applying the general molecular formular
(CnH2n+1COOH)

When General Molecular Formulae Name

n= CnH2n+1COOH
0. C0H2x0+1COOH = HCOOH Methanoic acid
1. C1H2x1+1COOH = CH3COOH Ethanoic acid
2. C2H2x2+1COOH = C2H5COOH Propanoic acid
3. C3H2x3+1COOH = C3H7COOH Butanoic acid
4. C4H2x4+1COOH = C4H9COOH Pentanoic acid
5. C5H2x5+1COOH = C5H11COOH Hexanoic acid
6. C6H2x6+1COOH = C6H13COOH Heptanoic acid
7. C7H2x7+1COOH = C7H15COOH Octanoic acid
8. C8H2x8+1COOH = C8H17COOH Nonanoic acid
9. C9H2x9+1COOH = C9H19COOH Decanoic acid
10. C10H2x10+1COOH = C10H21COOH Undacanoic acid
11. C11H2x11+1COOH = C11H23COOH Dodecanoic acid
12. C12H2x12+1COOH = C12H25COOH Tridecanoic acid
13. C13H2x13+1COOH = C13H27COOH Tetradecanoic acid
14. C14H2x14+1COOH = C14H29COOH Pentadecanoic acid
15. C15H2x15+1COOH = C15H31COOH Hexadecanoic acid
16. C16H2x16+1COOH = C16H33COOH Heptadecanoic acid
17. C17H2x17+1COOH = C17H35COOH Octadecanoic acid
18. C18H2x18+1COOH = C18H37COOH Nonadecanoic acid
19. C19H2x19+1COOH = C19H39COOH Icosanoic acid/
2
 Eiocosanoic acid
20. C20H2x20+1COOH = C20H41COOH uneicosanoic acid
21. C21H2x21+1COOH = C21H43COOH Docosanoic acid
22. C22H2x22+1COOH = C22H45COOH Tricosanoic acid
23. C23H2x23+1COOH = C23H47COOH Tetracosanoic acid
24. C24H2x24+1COOH = C24H49COOH Pentacosanoic acid
25. C25H2x25+1COOH = C25H51COOH Hexacosanoic acid
26. C26H2x26+1COOH = C26H53COOH Heptacosanoic acid
27. C27H2x27+1COOH = C27H55COOH Octacosanoic acid
28. C28H2x28+1COOH = C28H57COOH Nonacosanoic acid
29. C29H2x29+1COOH = C29H59COOH Triacontanoic acid
30. C30H2x30+1COOH = C30H61COOH Hentriacontanoic acid

N:B more of alkanoic acids naming can be achieved using the process in alkane naming. (31 – 120).

MOLECULAR STRUCTURES OF ALKANOIC ACIDS

N ALKANOIC STRUCTURAL FORMULAR MOLECULAR FORMULAR

ACIDS
0. O HCOOH
HCOOH H-C -OH
Methanoic acid
1. H O CH3COOH
CH3COOH H-C-C-O H
Ethanoic acid H
2. HH O CH3CH2COOH
C2H5COOH H-C-C-C-OH
Propanoic acid HH
3. HHH O CH3(CH2)2COOH
C3H7COOH H-C-C-C-C-OH
Butanoic acid HHH
4. HHHH O CH3(CH2)3COOH
C4H9COOH H-C-C-C-C-C-OH
Pentanoic acid HHHH
5. HHHHH O CH3(CH2)4COOH
C5H11COOH H-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
Hexanoic acid HHHHH
6. HHHHHH O CH3(CH2)5COOH
C6H13COOH H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
Heptanoic acid HHHHHH
7. HHHHHHH O CH3(CH2)6COOH
C7H15COOH H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
Octanoic acid HHHHHHH
8. HHHHHHHH O CH3(CH2)7COOH
C8H17COOH H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
Nonanoic acid HHHHHHHH
9. HHHHHHHHH O CH3(CH2)8COOH
C9H19COOH H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
Decanoic acid HHHHHHHHH
10. HHHHHHHHHH O CH3(CH2)9COOH

3
 C10H21COOH H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
Undecanoic HHHHHHHHHH
acid
11. HHHHHHHHHHH O CH3(CH2)10COOH
C11H23COOH H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
Dodecanoic HHHHHHHHHHH
acid
12. HHHHHHHHHHHH O CH3(CH2)11COOH
C12H25COOH H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
Tridecanoic HHHHHHHHHHHH
acid
13. C13H27COOH HHHHHHHHHHHHH O CH3(CH2)12COOH
Tetradecanoic H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
acid H H HH H H H H H H H H H
14. C14H29COOH HHHHHHHHHHHHHH O CH3(CH2)13COOH
Pentadecanoic H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
acid HHHHHHHHHHHHHH
15. C15H31COOH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHH O CH3(CH2)14COOH
Hexadecanoic H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
acid HHHHHHHHHHHHHHH
16. C16H33COOH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH O CH3(CH2)15COOH
Heptadecanoic H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
acid HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH
17. C17H35COOH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH O CH3(CH2)16COOH
Octadecanoic H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
acid HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH
18. C18H37COOH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH O CH3(CH2)17COOH
Nonadecanoic H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
acid HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH
19. HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH O CH3(CH2)18COOH
C19H39COOH H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
Eiocosanoic HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH
acid
20. C20H41COOH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH O CH3(CH2)19COOH
Heneiocosanoic H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
acid HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH

NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANOIC ACIDS

Alkanoic acids are named using the IUPAC method by considering the functional group of alkanoic acids
O
( - C - OH) and the position of attachment of other substituents on the carbon atoms. The lowest number is given.
For example:

(i) COOH (ii) COOH

COOH CH2
Ethanedioic acid
COOH
Propan-1,3-dioic acid

COOH

CH – CH3

4
 CH3-C – CH3

COOH
2,2,3- trimethyl butan-1,3- dioic acid
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOIC ACID (ALKANOIC ACIDS)
1. It is a colourless liquid
2. It has a pungent odour of vinegar
3. It has a boiling point of 1180C and melting point of 170C
4. It is soluble in water
5. It is weak electrolyte.
6. It turns blue litmus paper red
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOIC ACID
Ethanoic acid is neutralized by alkalis and base to form salts called ethanoates (esters)
1. Ethanoic acid react with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to form sodium ethanoate (CH 3COONa) and water
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
2. Ethanoic acid react with metals such as iron filling to liberate hydrogen gas.
heat
2CH3COOH + Fe (CH3COO)2Fe + H2

3. Ethanoic acid is heated with soda lime (NaOH), to form methane gas (CH 4) and carbon (iv) oxide
CH3COOH + NaOH CH4 + CO2
4. Ethanoic acid react with ethanol to form ethyl ethanoate and water. Alkanoic acid react with Alkanol to form
Alkanoate (ester) and water only. This process is analogous to NEUTRALIZATION reaction in inorganic
compounds. Hence, the process where by an alkanoic acid react with alkanol to form alkanoate (ester) and water
is called ESTERIFICATION reaction.
CH3COOH + CH3CH2OH CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O
Ethyl ethanoate

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF ETHANOIC ACID

Ethanoic acid can be prepared in the laboratory in two ways or stages by oxidation of ethanol with potassium
hexaoxodichromate (iv) (K2Cr2O7) acidified with tetraoxosulphate (vi) (H2SO4)

STAGE 1: C2H5OH K2Cr2O7 CH3CHO + H2O

Ethanol ethanal
STAGE 2: CH3CHO K2Cr2O7 CH3COOH
Ethanal ethanoic acid

USES OF ETHANOIC ACID

1. For making cellulose ethanoate
2. For making non-inflammable safety film
3. For making textile fibres such as rayon
4. For making vinylethanoate which is used in emulsion paints, adhesive for woods, paper, glass and brick.
5. As a vinegar for preserving food
6. To coagulate rubber latex.

TEST FOR ALKANOIC ACIDS

1. They turns litmus paper red.
2. react the suspected compound with sodium hydrogentrioxocarbonate (iv) (NaHCO 3). Effervescence of a gas,
carbon (iv) oxide evolved confirms alkanoic acid.

5
WEEK 2
ALKANOATES (ESTERS)
Alkanoates are the products of condensation reaction between alkanoic acids and akanols. They can also be
prepared by reacting alkanols with acid anhydrides. Alkanoate have a functional group of
O
R - C – O-R
and belong to homologous serie with general molecular formula of C nH2n+1COOCnH2n+1. The first member is
methylethanoate. Alkanoates are named by indicating the stem alkanol from which the alkanoate is derived with
the suffix – yl follow by a stem indicating the acid with the suffix – oate.

NAMING OF ALKANOATES
The formular of individual members of alkanoates are obtained by applying the general molecular formular
(CnH2n+1COOCnH2n+1)

When General Molecular Formulae Name

n= CnH2n+1COOCnH2n+1
1. C1H2x1+1COOC1H2x1+1 = CH3COOCH3 Methylethanoate
2. C2H2x2+1COOC2H2x2+1 = C2H5COOC2H5 Ethylpropanoate
3. C3H2x3+1COOC3H2x3+1 = C3H7COOC3H7 Propylbutanoate
4. C4H2x4+1COOC4H2x4+1 = C4H9COOC4H9 Butylpentanoate
5. C5H2x5+1COOC5H2x5+1 = C5H11COC5H11 Pentylhexanoate
6. C6H2x6+1COOC6H2x6+1 = C6H13COOC6H13 Hexylheptanoate
7. C7H2x7+1COOC7H2x7+1 = C7H15COOC7H15 Heptyloctanoate
8. C8H2x8+1COOC8H2x8+1 = C8H17COOC8H17 Octylnonanoate
9. C9H2x9+1COOC9H2x9+1 = C9H19COOC9H19 Nonyldecanoate
10. C10H2x10+1COOC10H2x10+1 = C10H21COOC10H21 Decylundecanoate
11. C11H2x11+1COOC11H2x11+1 = C11H23COOC11H23 Undecyldodecanoate
12. C12H2x12+1COOC12H2x12+1 = C12H25COOC12H25 Dodecyltridecanoate
13. C13H2x13+1COOC13H2x13+1 = C13H27COOC13H27 Tridecyltetradecanoate
14. C14H2x14+1COOC14H2x14+1 = C14H29COOC14H29 Tetradecylpentadecanoate
15. C15H2x15+1COOC15H2x15+1 = C15H31COOC15H31 Pentadecylhexadecanoate
16. C16H2x16+1COOC16H2x16+1 = C16H33COOC16H33 Hexadecylheptadecanoate
17. C17H2x17+1COOC17H2x17+1 = C17H35COOC17H35 Heptadecyloctadecanoate
18. C18H2x18+1COOC18H2x18+1 = C18H37COOC18H37 Octadecylnonadecanoate
19. C19H2x19+1COOC19H2x19+1 = C19H39COOC19H39 Nonadecyleicosanoate
20. C20H2x20+1COOC20H2x20+1 = C20H41COOC20H41 Eiocosylheneicisanoate
6
 21. C21H2x21+1COOC21H2x21+1 = C21H43COOC21H43 Heneicosyldocosanoate
22. C22H2x22+1COOC22H2x22+1 = C22H45COOC22H45 Docosyltricosanoate
23. C23H2x23+1COOC23H2x23+1 = C23H47COOC23H47 Tricosyltetracosanoate
24. C24H2x24+1COOC24H2x24+1 = C24H49COOC24H49 Tetracosylpentacosanoate
25. C25H2x25+1COOC25H2x25+1 = C25H51COOC25H51 Pentacosylhexacosanoate
26. C26H2x26+1COOC26H2x26+1 = C26H53COOC26H53 Hexacosylheptacosanoate
27. C27H2x27+1COOC27H2x27+1 = C27H55COOC27H55 Heptacosyloctacosanoate
28. C28H2x28+1COOC28H2x28+1 = C28H57COOC28H57 Octacosylnonacosanoate
29. C29H2x29+1COOC29H2x29+1 = C29H59CO C29H59 Nonacosyltriacontanoate
30. C30H2x30+1COOC30H2x30+1 = C30H61COOC30H61 Triacontylhentriacontanoate

N:B more of alkanoates naming can be achieved using the process in alkane naming. (31 – 120).

MOLECULAR STRUCTURES OF ALKANOATES

N ALKANOATES STRUCTURAL FORMULAR MOLECULAR

FORMULAR
1. CH3COOCH3 H O H CH3COOCH3
Methylethanoate H-C –C- O – C-H
H H
2. C2H5COOC2H5 HH O HH CH3CH2COOCH2CH3
Ethylpropanoate H-C-C- C – O – C-C- H
HH HH
3. C3H7COOC3H7 HHH O HHH CH3(CH2)2COO(CH)2CH3
Propylbutanoate H-C-C-C-C- O – C-C-C-H
HHH HHH
4. C4H9COOC4H9 HHHH O HHHH CH3(CH2)3COO(CH)3CH3
Butylpentanoate H-C-C-C-C-C- O – C-C-C-C-H
HHHH HHHH
5. C5H11COOC5H11 HHHHH O HHHHH CH3(CH2)4COO(CH)4CH3
Pentylhexanoate H-C-C-C-C-C-C- O – C-C-C-C-C-H
HHHHH HHHHH
6. C6H13COOC6H13 HHHHHH O HHHHHH CH3(CH2)5COO(CH)5CH3
Hexylheptanoate H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C- O – C-C-C-C-C-C-H
HHHHHH HHHHHH
7. C7H15COOC7H15 HHHHHHH OHHHHHHH CH3(CH2)6COO(CH)6CH3
Heptyloctanoate H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C- O – C-C-C-C-C-C-C-H
HHHHHHH HHHHHHH
8. C8H17COOC8H17 HHHHHHHH O HHHHHHHH CH3(CH2)7COO(CH)7CH3
Octylnonanoate H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C- C-O – C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-H
HHHHHHHH HHHHHHHH
9. C9H19COOC9H19 HHHHHHHHH O HHHHHHHHH CH3(CH2)8COO(CH)8CH3
Nonyldecanoate H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C- C-O – C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-H
HHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHH
10. C10H21COOC10H21 HHHHHHHHHH O HHHHHHHHHH CH3(CH2)9COO(CH)9CH3
Decylundecanoat H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C – O – C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-
e HHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHH

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHTL ETHANOATE

1. Colourless volatile liquid
2. It has a pleasant smell of fruit

7
3. Slightly soluble in water
4. Boils at 750C

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHYL ETHANOATE

1. It undergo hydrolysis to form ethanol and ethanoic acid
CH3COOC2H5 + H2O CH3COOH + C2H5OH
Ethyl ethanoate ethanoic ethanol
2. It react with sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and ethanol
CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH CH3COONa + C2H5OH
Sodium ethanoate
3. it undergo reduction to form ethanol
CH3COOC2H5 + 2H2 2C2H5OH

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF ETHYL ETHANOATE

Ethyl ethanoate is prepared in the laboratory by reacting ethanol with ethanoic acid in the presence of a strong
acid as a catalyst such a tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid (H 2SO4).
CH3CH2OH + CH3COOH H2SO4 CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O
Ethyl ethanoate
The above reaction is an ESTERIFICATION reaction.

USES OF ETHYL ETHANOATE

1. Use chiefly in dissolving polystyrene cement
2. Use in perfumes and cosmetics
3. Use in artificial flavour for foods

WEEK 3
FATS AND OILS
Fats and oils are naturally occurring alkanoates (esters) and they belong to group of compound known as LIPIDS.
They are used as energy storing compound in plants and animals and are derived from propan-1,2,3-triol, CH 2OH-
CHOH-CH2OH which is commonly called GLYCEROL. Most fats are triesters derived from propan-1,2,3-triol and a
variety of long – chain alkanoic acids, sometimes called FATTY ACIDS. A simple fat molecule can be obtained
from a molecule of propan-1,2,3-triol and three molecules of octadecanoic acid.
CH2OH CH2OOC(CH2)16CH3

CHOH + 3[HOOC(CH2)16CH3] CHOOC(CH2)16CH3

Octadecanoic acid
CH2OH CH2OOC(CH2)16CH3
Propan-1,2,3- propan-1,2,3-triyl
triol trioctadecanoate.
PROPERTIES OF FATS
1. Solid at room temperature
2. Found mainly in animals
3. High melting point
4. Contain saturated alkanoic acid e.g C15H31COOH (animal fat)
PROPERTIES OF OILS
8
1. Liquid at room temperature
2. Found mainly in plants
3. Low melting point
4. Contain unsaturated alkanoic acid e.g CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FATS AND OILS.
S/N FATS OILS
1. Solid at room Liquid at room temperature
temperature
2. Found mainly in animals Found mainly in plants
3. High melting point Low melting point
4. Contain saturated Contain unsaturated
alkanoic acid e.g alkanoic acid e.g
C15H31COOH (animal fat) CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH.

IMPORTANCE OF FATS AND OIL

1. Fats and oil provide more energy to animals than carbohydrates.
2. Fats supply essential fatty acids to animals
3. Fats and oils also provide fat soluble vitamins
4. They help in the maintenance of body temperature.
TEST FOR FATS AND OILS
TEST OBVERSATION INFERENCE
(i) Transluscent Test The drop of oil becomes
(i) Drop oil on a spot on more transluscent, i.e, it The transluscency
a filter paper, allows more light to shows the presence of
(ii) Observe the spot pass through when held fats and oils
against a source of light in front of it.
(ii) Sudan (iii) Test Red colouration appears
(i) Add few drops of before boiling. A black Fats and Oils is present
sudan (iii) solution to oil precipitate is formed on
in a test tube, boiling
(ii) Boil the solution
SOAPS –SAPONIFICATION
Soap contains the sodium or potassium salts of long chain alkanoic acids. Such as sodium hexadecanoate (sodium
palmitate) and sodium octadecanoate (sodium stearate). Soap making involves hydrolysis of esters by alkali. The
process is known as SAPONIFICATION. This is the hydrolysis of fats and oil with caustic alkali to yield propan-
1,2,3-triol and the corresponding sodium or potassium salts of the component fatty acids. These salts are the
principal constituents of soap.
Soap is a sodium or potassium salts of an alkanoates and each contain two parts: (RCOONa +) for sodium soap and
(RCOOK+) for potassium soap.
(i) R – alkyl radical is a non – water soluble hydrocarbon
(ii) COONa+ and COOK+ is soluble in water
In the cleaning action of soap, the water soluble part COOK + or COONa+ removes the dirt from clothes while the
non – water soluble hydrocarbon part removes the grease and both are rinsed from dress as waste water.
NOTE: Sodium salts produce soft soap while potassium salts produce hard soap.
DETERGENTS
Detergents are sodium salts of sulphonated alkenes. They are prepared by reacting an alkene ( n=12 to 20) with
concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid and then hydrolyse the product with sodium hydroxide solution.
C15H30 + H2SO4 C15H31SO4H
C15H31SO4H + NaOH C15H31SO4Na + H2O

9
 Detergent
ADVANTAGES OF SOAP
1. It makes water to wet materials more effectively by lowering its surface tension
2. It emulsify oil or grease
3. It is biodegradable, that is, they can be broken down by bacterial.

DISADVANTAGES OF SOAP
1. It form scum on clothes with hard water
2. Raw materials are expensive and could be used for human consumption
3. It wastes soap when washing with hard water

ADVANTAGES OF DETERGENT
1. They don’t form scum on clothes with hard water
2. Raw materials are cheap and easily available
3. They are more soluble in water than soap, therefore increase the cleaning properties.

DISAVANTAGES OF DETERGENT
1. They are non – biodegradable, that is, they cannot be broken down by bacterial.
2. They causes water pollution.
MARGARINE
Margarine is made from double bond containing compounds through the process of HYDROGENATION, this is
used to convert edible oils such as palm oil which consist of long chain alkanoic acids which convert double bond
into margarine. When oils are treated with hydrogen in the presence of Nickel as a catalyst, carbon chains of
double bonds becomes saturated thereby raising the melting point of the oil so that it becomes solid, at room
temperature.
ADVANTAGES OF MARGARINE OVER BUTTER
1. It contains less of fats such as cholesterol which are hazardous to health
2. It is cheaper than butter because it is made from vegetable rather than an animal sources which are expensive
to produce.

10
WEEK 4
AMINO ACIDS
Amino acids are derivatives of carboxylic acids in which one hydrogen atom of alkyl group has been replaced by
an amino group, - NH2. Amino acids are the basic structural units of proteins with the general molecular
formular:
R
H – C - COOH
NH2
The carbon atom of the amino acid to which the functional group is attached is known as the α-carbon. There are
three forms of amino acids:
1. The acid condition H3+NCH2COOH
2. The neutral condition H3+NCH2COO
3. The basic condition H2NCH2COO
H3+NCH2COOH H3+NCH2COO H2NCH2COO
Acid condition neutral condition basic condition
NOMENCLATURE OF AMINO ACIDS
(i) H (ii) H (iii) H
H – C – COOH CH3- C – COOH H2N – C
NH2 NH3 CH3
Amino ethanoic acid 2 – amino propanoic SH
(glycine) acid (alanine) cysteine

O
(iv) H2N – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – C
OH
5 –aminopentanoic acid
NH2 O
(v) HO – CH2 – CH - C
OH
2 – amino, 3-hydroxypropanoic acid (serine)

O NH2 O
(vi) C- CH2-CH2-CH-C
HO OH
2 – amino -1,5-pentadiamine (glutamic acid)

11
 NH2 O
(vii) CH3 – CH-CH-C
OH OH
2- amino – hydroxyl butanoic acid (threonine)

H Br Br O
(viii) N–C–C–C
H H Br OH
3-amino-2,2,3-tribromopropanoic acid
PREPARATION OF AMINO ACIDS
Amino acids are prepared by treating alkanal with cyanide ions, in the presence of ammonium ions.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACIDS
1. They are salt – like and ionic because of formation of the zwitterions e.g N +H3 . CH2 . COO-
2. They are more soluble in water than in less polar solvents such as ether
3. They have low solubility in non-polar solvents
4. α- amino acids are crystalline solids with high melting and boiling point

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACIDS

1. Amino acids react with alkanols in the presence of an acid catalyst to give esters.
2. Amino acids on heating react with sodium trioxocarbonate(iV) solution to liberate carbon(iv) oxide
3. Amino acids react with acyl chlorides or acid anhydrides to give acylated products
4. Amino acids reacts with dioxonitrate (III) acid to give nitrogen and the corresponding hydroxyl carboxylic acid
PROTEINS
Proteins may be regarded as the products of successive condensation between carbonyl group of one amino acid
and the amino group of another amino acid. proteins are complex combinations of amino acids which are
essential constituents of living cells, being responsible for growth and the mainteinance of all tissues.
SOURCES OF PROTEIN: Milk, Egg, Fish, Cheese, Meat, Chicken. While plant sources are: Beans, groundnut,
soyabeans, cowpea e.t.c
PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS
1. Denaturation
2. Hydrolysis
TEST FOR PROTEINS
1. Biuret test: Add about 1cm3 of dilute causic soda solution into a test tube containing some dilute egg white
solution. Then add 1% copper(II) tetraoxosulphate(vi) solution drop by drop and shake thoroughly. The formation
of a violet colouration indicates the presence of proteins.
2. Million’s test: Add few drops of million’s reagent to some egg – white solution in a test tube. The formation of
a white precipitate which turns brick – red on heating indicates the presence of propteins
3. Trioxonitrate(V) acid Test: Add few drops of concentrated hydrogen trioxonitrate(v) acid to 2cm 3 of egg –
white solution. The formation of an intense yellow colour indicates the presence of proteins.
IMPORTNCE OF PROTEIN
1. Proteins is used for the growth of young ones
2. It is used for the repair of worn – out tissues or cells
3. It aids reproduction
4. It is used for the production of enzymes
5. It is also used for production of hormones
6. It is used for tissue and cell formation.
AMINES
Organic compounds that are obtained by replacing one or more of hydrogen atoms of ammonia (NH 3) by alkyl or
aryl groups. Amines are drived from ammonia by replacing the hydrogen atoms, one at a time with carbon –
containing groups. The fundament groups are R-NH2, R2 – NH, R3 – N
Amine are classified into primary, secondary and tertiary according to the number of substituted hydrogen.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMINES
12
PRIMARY AMINES: These are amines that have one alkyl or aryl group attached to the nitrogen of an amine e.g
H
R – NH2 R–N
H
(i) CH3NH2 (ii) C6H5NH2 (iii) C6H5CH3NH2 (iv) CH3(CH2)3CHNH2
Methylamine phenylamine phenylmethylamine CH3
(benzylamine) hexyl-2-amine or haxan-2-amine
(v) CH3CH2NH2 (vi)
Ethylamine CH2NH2

Benzylamine
SECONDARY AMINES: These are amine that have two alkyl or aryl groups attached to the nitrogen of amine e.g
(i) CH3CH2 – N – CH2CH3 (ii) CH3 CH3
H N
diethylamine
N, N – dimethylamine

TERTIARY AMINES: These are amine that have three alkyl or aryl groups attached to the nitrogen of amine e.g
(i) (C2H5)3N (ii) CH3 – N – CH3
triethylamine CH3
N,N,N –trimethylamine

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF AMINE

1. From alkyl halide: can be prepare from alkylhalides in the presence of excess ammonia
2. By the reduction of nitriles: Nitriles give primary amine on reduction with powerful reducing agents in ether.
INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF AMINES
Trioxo-nitrate (v) acid readily converts alkanes to nitroalkanes using nickel as a catalyst
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AMINES
1. first two members of amine –mthylamine and –ethylamine are gas, while others are liquid at room
temperature and pressure.
2. The smaller amines are soluble in water.
3. Amine have strong odour characteristic of dead fish.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AMINES
1. Reacion as organic base: primary, secondary and tertiary amine are all basic, like ammonia they have a lone
pair of electrons on the nitrogen atoms.
C6H5NH2 + HCl C6H5N+H3Cl+
Phenyl ammonium chloride
2. Like ammonia secondary and tertiary amines are alkylated to give _ - substituted derivatives.
H CH3
CH3 – N – CH3 + C2H5Br CH3 – N – CH3 + HBr

USES OF AMINES
Amines are used in the manufacture of polyamides or nylon.

AMIDES
AMIDES
An amide is a compound in which the – OH group of a carboxylic acid is replaced by – NH 2. When the – OH is
replaced by – NHR, the product is called a nitrogen – substituted amide i.e N- substituted amide. Amide are
characterised by the presence of functional amino group.
O
-C
NH2

13
Amides are named as derivatives of carboxylic acids, by dropping the ending –oic of the parent carboxylic acid
and replace with the ending amide e.g.
O O
CH3 – C CH3 – C
OH NH2
Ethanioc ethanamide
Other examples of amides are:
(i) O (ii) O
H–C C2H5 – C
NH2 NH2
Methanamide propanamide

(iii) O (iv) CH3 O

CH3 – C CH3 – (CH2)7CHC
N – CH3 NH2
H 2- methyl decanamide
N - Methyl ethanamide

(v) NH2 (vi) CH3 CH3

CH3
P- toluidine N,N – dimethylamine

(vii) CH3
NH CH
CH3
N- isopropylcyclopentylamine

(viii) NH2 (ix) NH2 (x) NH2

OH

NO2 O - hydroxyaniline
M - nitroaniline OCH3
P - methoxyaniline

PREPARATION OF AMIDES:
1. from ester, acylhalides or acid anhydrides: when esters, acylhalides or acid anhydrides are treated with
concentrated ammonia solution or liquid ammonia, amides are obtained
O O
CH3C + NH3 CH3 – C + CH3OH
O – CH3 NH2
Methyl ethanoate ethanamide
2. by partial hydrolysis of nitriles: this is achieved by dissolving the nitrile in concentrated tetraoxosulphate(vi)
acid. the mixture is then poured into water

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AMIDES

1. With the exception of methanamide, a liquid with a high boiling point, amides are crystalline solids at room
temperature.
2. The melting and boiling points of amide are much higher than expected.
14
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AMIDES
1. Amides are very weak base and also very weak acids
2. Amide are readily hydrolysed when treated with dilute acid or alkali to give the carboxylic acid and ammonia is
liberated.
3. Primary amides are reduced to primary amines with sodium and ethanol or with lithium tetrahydrido
aluminate (III).
4. Reaction with dioxonitrate (III) acid to yield carboxylic acid with the evolution of nitrogen

WEEK 5
POLYMERIZATION
The phenomenon whereby smaller molecules combine together to form very large or complex molecules is
known as POLYMERIZATION. Polymerization therefore is the process where smaller molecule combine together
to form one giant or complex molecule with no gain or loss of any materials. The original material is called the
monomer while the product form is called a polymer.
For example, if ethyne is heated in a red hot tube, it is polymerized into benzene.
3C2H2 C6H6
Polymerization as a chemical reaction is characteristic of unsaturated compounds. In the reaction, the double
bonds are broken to form a long chain of single bond units.
POLYMER
Polymers are substances with very large molecules which are themselves built up by the repetition of smaller
chemical units. The formation of a polymer from smaller chemical unit is thus termed polymerization as in the
equation below:
n(CH2=CH2) (-CH2-CH2-)n
CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYMER
1. Highly branded polymer tend to have lower tensile strength and melt easily
2. Polymer with much cross-linking tend to be rigid, hard and fairly brittle
3. Polymers tend to be strong and difficult to melt as the intermolecular forces between chain are high
4. The strength and melting point of a polymer increase with chain length
NATURAL OCCURING POLYMERS
1. Wood
2. Wool
3. Cotton
4. Rubber
5. Protein
SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
1. Nylon
2. Plastic
3. Textiles
4. Perspex
5. Polyvinylchloride
DISADVANTAGES OF SYNTHETIC POLYMER
1. They non-biodegradable i.e cannot be broken down by bacteria
2. they cannot be economically recycled.
CLASSES OF POLYMERS
15
1. Addition Polymer
2. Condensation Polymer
ADDITION POLYMERS: This is the built up of polymer from monomer without any elimination, so that the
empirical formular of both the monomer and polymer are the same. Examples of addition polymers are:
(a) Polythene- used for making firms and sheeting for bags and wrappers.
(b) Polypropylene- used for making ropes.
(c) Polystyrene – used to produce electric insulators, toys, shoes soles and dishes
(d) Polybutylene – use for making car tyres
(e) Perspex – used for making glass
(f) Polyvinylchloride (PVC) – used for coating fabrics, for covering wires and cables and making gramophone
records.
(g) Acrilan – used for making textiles
CONDENSATION POLYMERS: This is the built up of polymer from monomer with elimination of small molecule
material such as water. Example of condensation polymer are:
(a) Polyesters – used as the bonding resin in glass, fibre, plastics as well as in wide application in the textile
industry.
(b) Terylene – used in textile industries.

Plastics: are polymer which are more easily deformed

TYPES OF PLASTICS
1. Thermosoftening: these are plastics that can be moulded by melting. E.g polythene
2. Thermosetting: these are plastics that cannot be remelted. E.g bakelite.

16
WEEK 6
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only. The hydrogen and oxygen atoms
are in ratio 2:1. The general molecular formula for this class of homologous series is C xH2yOy or Cx(H2O)y . Example
of carbohydrates are water soluble sugars such as sucrose and glucose and larger insoluble sugars such as starch,
glycogen and cellulose.
SOURCES OF CARBOHYDRATES: Rice, yam, maize, millet, guinea corn, potatoes, bread, Garri e.t.c
CLASSES OF CARBOHYDRATES.
1. SIMPLE SUGARS: these are crystalline and soluble in water and have sweet taste. E.g glucose, fructose and
sucrose
2. COMPLEX SUGARS: these are otherwise called polysaccharide. They are non – crystalline, insoluble in water
and tasteless e.g starch and cellulose. They have very high relative molecular masses.
Carbonhydrates are polyhydroxyl and aldehydes. Polyhydroxyl (ketones compound) which yeild one of these
compounds on hydrolysis.
CHO CH2OH
H-C-OH C=O
OH-C-H C-H
H-C-OH H-C-OH
H-C-OH H-C-OH
CH2OH CH2OH
Glucose Fructose
Monosaccharide: A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed to simpler compound, e.g Glucose, Fructose and
Galactose.
Disaccharide: A carbohydrate that can be hydrolyzed to two monosaccharide molecules. E.g Sucrose, Lactose
and Maltose
Polysaccharide: A carbohydrate that can be hydrolyzed to many monosaccharide molecules. E.g Cellulose, Starch
and Glycogen.
A monosaccharide with an aldehyde(Alkanal) group is knowns as ALDOSE and if it contains keto(Alkanone) group
is known as KETOSE.
Depending on the number of C atoms it contains, a monosaccharide is known as triose, tetrose, pentose, hexose
and so on.
Glucose is aldohexose while fructose is keto-hexose. Most naturally occurring monosaccharides are pentose (5-C)
and hexoses (6-C).
Carbohydrates that reduce fehling (or Benedict’s) or Tollen’s reagents are known as reducing sugars. All
disaccharides whether aldose or ketose are reducing sugar. Most disaccharides are reducing sugar. Sucrose
(table sugar) is a notable exception, for it is non-reducing sugar.
17
GENERAL FEATURES
TRIOSES
We regard C3H6O3 as the simplest molecule formula of a sugar. There are three isomeric triose. Two of which are
enantiomeric.
CHO CHO
H-C-OH HO-C-H
CH2OH CH2OH
D- Glyceraldehyde L-Glyceraldehyde
D- and L- glyceraldehydes may be regarded as the parents of two series of Aldose sugars.
Form glycerol
CH2OH
*CHOH
CH2OH
Carbon 2 I Chiral carbon atom because it is bounded to four different GROUPS not atoms
TETROSES (ET)
CHO CHO
H-C-OH HO-C-H
H-C-OH H-C-OH
CH2OH CH2OH
D- Erythrose D-Threose
All –OH point to right -OH on C -2

CHO CHO
HO-C-H H-C-OH
HO-C-H HO-C-H
CH2OH CH2OH
L- Erythrose L-Threose
All –OH point to left All –OH point to right

ALDOPENTOSES (D- SERIES) RAXL

CHO CHO CHO CHO
H-C-OH HO-C-H H-C-OH HO-C-H
H-C-OH H-C-OH HO-C-H HO-C-H
H-C-OH H-C-OH H-C-OH H-C-OH
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
D- Ribose D-Arabinose D-Xylose D- Lyxose
All –OH point to right –OH on C- 2 -OH on C-3 -OH on C-2 & C-3

ALDOHEXOSES (D-SERIES) STRUCTURES.

CHO CHO CHO CHO
H-C-OH HO-C-H H-C-OH HO-C-H
H-C-OH H-C-OH HO-C-H HO-C-H
H-C-OH H-C-OH H-C-OH H-C-OH
H-C-OH H-C-OH H-C-OH H-C-OH
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
D-Allose D-Altrose D-Glucose D- Mannose
All –OH point to right –OH on C- 2 -OH on C-3 -OH on C-2 & C-3
ALL ATRUIST GLADLY MAKE
CHO CHO CHO CHO
H-C-OH HO-C-H H-C-OH HO-C-H
H-C-OH H-C-OH HO-C-H HO-C-H
OH-C-H OH-C-H HO-C-H HO-C-H
18
 H-C-OH H-C-OH H-C-OH H-C-OH
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
D- Gulose D-Indose D-Galactose D- Talose
- OH on C-4 –OH on C- 2 & C-4 -OH on C-3 & C-4 -OH on C-2, C-3 & C-4
GUMS IN GALLON TANKS

RING STRUCTURE

FURAN PYRAN

In linear structure
H OH H OH
C C
CHOH CHOH
CHOH CHOH
CHOH CHOH
CH2OH CHOH
5-member furanose CH2OH
6-member pyranose

Carbohydrate

Simple sugar Complex sugar

Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharide

Glucose Fructose Galactose Sucrose Maltose Lactose Starch Glycogen Cellulose

GLUCOSE:
Glucose is the most important simple sugar found in fruits such as grapes, in honey and the cell sap of plants.
Glucose is the main source of energy for animal tissue and it is sythesized by plants during photosynthesis and
exist in two forms – an open chain and a cylic forms.
H
C=O CH2OH H
H-C-OH H C O
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 OH-C-H C H C
H-C-OH OH OH H OH
H-C-OH C C
CH2OH H OH
Open chain Glucose Cyclic form of glucose
LABORATORY PREPARATION OF GLOCOSE
By hydrolysis of sucrose with dilute acid in the presence of ethanol
C12H22O11 + H2O heat H2SO4 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF GLOCOSE
By hydrolysis of starch using dilute acid under pressure
+nH2O
(C5H10O5)n nC6H12O6
Starch glucose

PROPERTIES OF GLUCOSE
1. glucose is a strong reducing agent because of the presence of the –CHO group
2. when heated glucose with concentrated tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid, a black residue of carbon is formed
3. Glucose solution is readily fermented to ethanol and carbon(iv) oxide by the enzymes zymase.
TEST FOR GLUCOSE
Add a few drops of fehling’s solution to glucose solution in a test tube. A brick-red precipitate is obtained on
boiling

USES OF GLUCOSE
1. Glucose is use in the manufacturing of jam and sweets.
2. It is use as an immediate source of energy for sick people and sportmen.
FRUCTOSE (Fruit sugar or laevulose)
Fructose like glucose has the molecular formulae C6H12O6 and its structure is:

CH2OH O H
C=O HOCH2
OH-C-H C C
H-C-OH OH H OH CH2OH
H-C-OH C C
CH2OH OH H
Open chain Fructcose Cyclic form of fructose
Fructose is usually found together with glucose in sweet fruit and honey. It is also obtained from the hydrolysis of
sucrose. In many way fructose resembles glucose. The only difference is the behaviour of the two sugar towards
oxidation agents. E.g on oxidation with trioxonitrate(v) acid, fructose gives a mixture of acid each containing less
than six carbon atom.
DISACCHARIDES
Disaccharide are produced by the condensation of two molecules of monosaccharides and elimination of one
molecule of water. The two molecule component monosaccharides may be different or the same. They have
general formular of C12H22O11. All disaccharide are crystalline solid which are soluble in water.

Component Disaccharide
Glucose + fructose Sucrose (Cane sugar)
Glucose + Galactose Lactose (milk sugar)
Glucose + Glucose Mlatose (malt sugar)

SUCROSE

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Sucrose has the molecular formular C12H22O11. It is the common granulated sugar used to sweeten food. It occurs
naturally in many plants and fruits. The main source is sugar cane and sugar beef

H CH2OH H CH2OH O H
C O
C H C O C C
OH H H OH
OH C C C C CH2OH
H OH OH H

PREPARATION OF SUCROSE
Sucrose is prepared from juice of sugar cane or sugar beef. The juice from suagar cane or beef is first extracted
with water warmed to about 800C. the solution is then purified by treatment with slaked lime and
carbon(iv)oxide. The purified solution is concentrated by evaporation.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SUCROSE

1. Sucrose is colourless crystalline solid, with very sweet taste
2. It dissolves readily in water but not in akanol
CHEMICAL PREPERTIES OF SUCROSE
1. Sucrose chars on strong heating with concentrated H2SO4
2. When sucrose is heated to a temperature of about 2100C, which is above its melting point but below its
charring temperature, a yellow-brown substance known as caramel is obtained
3. Sucrose is readily hydrolysed by dilute acids or enzyme.
TEST FOR SUCROSE
Add few drops of freshly prepared seliwanoff reagent to 5cm3 of sucrose solution in a test tube, warm in water
bath. The mixture turns red after ten(10) minutes
USES OF SUCROSE
1. Sucrose is used for sweeten food
2. It is used for preserving food
3. It is also used to produce ethanol by fermentation
4. Caramel is used for flavouring and in confectionery
MALTOSE
Maltose is another disaccharide with molecular formular C 12H22O11 and the structural formular is:

H CH2OH H H CH2OH H
C O C O
C H C O C H C
OH H OH H
OH C C C C OH
H OH H OH
Maltose is obtained by the action of malt on starch. Maltose contains the enzyme diastase
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MALTOSE
1. It is a crystalline, white solid and soluble
2. It melts between 1600C – 1650C
3. Maltose is hydrolysed by dilute acids or by enzyme maltase
4. Maltose is a reducing sugar
LACTOSE
Lactose is also known as milk sugar and occurs in the milk of mammals. It is not found in plants. Its molecular
formular is C12H22O11. While its structural formular is:
OH CH2OH H H H OH H
C O C C
C H C O C OH H C
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 OH H H
H C C C O OH
H OH CH2OH

PROPERTIES OF LACTOSE
1. Lactose is crystalline, soluble, white solid
2. It melts at 2030C
3. It is hydrolysed by dilute acids or by the enzymes lactase to an equimolar mixture of glucose and galactose.
POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides are high polymers of very long chain of monosaccharides linked together by condensation with
the molecular weights ranging from a few thousands to several millions. Important polysaccharide are glycogen,
cellulose, starch and insulin.
PREPARATION OF STARCH
The raw materials (e.g potato or cassava tubers) are first peeled and crushed to break the plant cells and release
the starch granules. The crushed pulp is then mixed with water to extract the starch. It forms suspension which is
allowed to stand for some time, leaving behind the white starch residue and the water above is decanted.

PROPERTIES OF STARCH
1. Starch is a white, odourless and teasteless powder.
2. It is insoluble in cold water but soluble in hot water, forming a colloidal solution which sets into a jelly on
cooling.
3. Starch is hydrolysed by dilute acids to yield a mixture of maltose and glucose. Further hydrolysis give glucose.
4. It is dcomposed on heating in the presence of the enzyme diastate to form maltose sugar
5. Starch does not contain any free carbonyl group, it does not reduce fehling’s solution. Hence it is not a
reducing sugar.
TEST FOR STARCH
Add a few drops iodine to some boiled starch. A dark – blue colouration, which disappears on heating and
reappears on cooling results.
USES OF STARCH
1. It is used mainly as food
2. It is used to produce ethanol and glucose
3. It is used as a stiffening agent.
CELLULOSE
Cellulose is the main structural component of plant cell walls and plant fibres. The main sources of cellulose
include cotton and wood. It is the most widely distributed organic compound.
PROPERTIES OF CELLULOSE
1. Cellulose is white solid which is not soluble in water and ordinary organic solvent.
2. It is not easily hydrolysed by dilute acids
3. The enzymes cellulase readily hydrolyse cellulose
USES OF CELLULOSE
1. It is used in the manufacturing of paper, cellophane, textile and ropes.
2. In the manufacturing of gum, cotton and explosives.
GARRI PRODUCTION
To make Garri, cassava tubers are peeled, washed and grated or crushed to produce a mash. The mash could be
mixed with palm oil (Oil Garri) before being placed in a porous bag. It is then placed in an adjustable press
machine or place heavy stone on the bag for 1 – 3 hours to remove excess starchy water. When the cassava has
become dry enough, it is ready for the next step. It is then sieved and fried in a large clay or iron frying pot with
or without palm oil. The resulting dry granular Garri can be stored for long periods. It may be poured or ground
to make a fine flour.
TEST FOR PROTEIN, STARCH, SUGAR, FATS AND OILS, WATER

S/ COMPOUNDS TEST OBVERSATION INFERENCE

N
1 TEST FOR PROTEINS (i) Biuret’s test
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 (i) take a small quantity of fresh
milk or egg white solution.
(ii) Add 1cm3 of protein and
sodium hydroxide and 1% Mixture will turn to Protein is present.
copper(ii) solution in drops purple or violet
(iii) Shake the mixture after each colour
drop
(iv) do not heat
(ii) Million’s Test
(i) Put 3cm3 of protein food, e.g
fresh egg white in test tube A red precipitate Protein is present
(ii) Add 3cm3 of million’s reagent would appear
(iii) warm the mixture in a water
bath for few minutes
(iii) Xanthoproteic Test A white precipitate
(i) Put 2cm3 of egg white or milk forms, which turns
solution in a test tube yellow on heating.
(ii) Add about 1cm3 of conc. On cooling the Protein is present
Trioxonitrate(v) acid and 3cm3 of content after
ammonium hydroxide solution adding excess
(iii) Heat the solution NH4OH, the
(iv) allow it to cool solution becomes
orange.
2. TEST FOR STARCH (i) Collect any starch material like The colour will Starch is present
bread or yam, change to blue-
(ii) Add few drops of dilute iodine black
solution
3 TEST FOR SIMPLE (i) Put a small quantity of glucose A brick-red or Glucose is present
SUGARS, e.g solution in a test tube orange precipitate
glucose and (ii) Add 2% Benedict solution is seen
fructose (iii) Boil the mixture for 4 – 6
minutes
4 TEST FOR (i) Put a small quantity of sucrose
REDUCING SUGAR, solution in a test tube
e.g sucrose, (ii) Add few drops of Benedict or A yellow Sucrose or non-
maltose or lactose Fehling’s solution precipitate is reducing sugar is
(iii) Add few drops of HCl obversed present
(iv) Boil the mixture for few
minutes
NOTE: Dilute HCl and boiling will
help to hydrolized the sucrose to
simple sugars, e.g glucose

5 TEST FOR FATS AND (i) Transluscent Test The drop of oil
OILS (i) Drop oil on a spot on a filter becomes more The transluscency
paper, transluscent, i.e, it shows the
(ii) Observe the spot against a allows more light presence of fats
source of light to pass through and oils
when held in front
of it.
(ii) Sudan (iii) Test Red colouration
(i) Add few drops of sudan (iii) appears before Fats and Oils is
solution to oil in a test tube, boiling. A black present
(ii) Boil the solution precipitate is
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 formed on boiling
6 TEST FOR WATER Dip a blue, dry cobalt chloride The colour of the
paper in a food item paper changes Water is present.
from blue to pink

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following compounds determines the octane rating of petrol? A. 1, 2, 3 trimethylpentane B. 2, 3,
5 - trimethyloctane C. 2, 3, 5 trimethylpentane D. 2, 2, 4 - trirnethylpentane
2. Which of the following compounds would react with ethanoic acid to give a sweet smelling liquid?
A. Alkane B. Alkanol C. Alkanal D. Alkyne
3. The reaction between alkanoic acid and alkanols in the presence of a mineral acid is known as
A. saponification B. hydrolysis C. esterification D. dehydration
4. The following substances are examples of addition polymer except A. nylon. B. perspex
C. polyethane. D. polychloroethane.
5. When bromine is added to ethene at room temperature, the compound formed is
A. 1, 1 - dibromoethane B. 1, 1 - dibromoethene. C. 1, 2 - dibromoethane, D. 1, 2 - dibromoethene.
6. The compound that makes palm wine taste sour after exposure to the air for few days is
A. ethanol. B. ethanoic acid. C. methanol. D. methanoic acid.
7. The reagent that can be used to distinguish ethene from ethyne is A. ammoniacal silver trioxonitrate (V)
solution. B. Benedict solution. C. bromine water. D. Fehling’s solution.
8. Which of the following pairs of compounds belongs to the same homologous series?
A. C3H8 and C3H6 B. C2H6 and C4H10 C. C4H10 and C5H10 D. C2H4 and C4H10
9. The final products of the reaction of ethyne with excess hydrogen chloride is
A. CH3CHCl2 B. CH2ClCH2Cl C. CH2=CHCl D. CH3CCl3
10. The reaction between C2H2 and HBr is called
A. Addition B. Oxidation C. Polymerization D. Substitution
11. The gas given off when ethanol react with sodium is
A. Carbon(IV) oxide B. Hydrogen C. Methane D. Oxygen
12. CH3 CH3 CH3 H

C=C C=C
H H H CH3
The two compound represented by the structural formulae above are
A. Geometrical isomer B. Optical isomer C. Chain isomer D. Linkage isomer
13. Which of the following compound will not decolourized acidified KMnO 4 solution A. C2H5OH B. C6H10 C. C6H6 D.
C6H14

14. An alkyne with six carbon atoms per molecule has relative molecular mass of A. 72 B. 82 C. 84 D. 86

15. A characteristic of the alkane family is …….. reaction

A. Addition B. Elimination C. Neutralization D. Substitution
16. The alkyl group is represented by the general formulae
A. CnH2n B. CnH2n+1 C. CnH2n+2 D. CnH2n-1
17. An isomer of C5H12 is A. 2-methyl butane B. 2-ethyl butane
C. 2-methyl pentane D. 2-methyl propane
18. Cyclohexane and benzene have an equal number of

24
A. carbon atom B. double bonds C. hydrogen atoms D. Single bonds
19. H CH3 H H H H
I I I I I I
H ----- C ------ C ------ C ----- C ------ C ----- C ------ H
I I I I I I
H CH3 H H H H
The IUPAC nomenclature of the compound above is A. 2-dimethyl hexane
B. 2-ethyl hexane C. 2,2-dimethyl hexane D. 5,5 dimethyl hexane
20. Ethene undergoes mainly addition reactions because it is
A. Hydrocarbon B. Unsaturated C. Easily polymerized D. covalent compound
21. Which of the following compounds is not a natural polymer
A. polyethene B. protein C. rubber D. starch.
22. The property which makes alcohol soluble in water is the
A. Boiling point B. hydrogen bond C. Ionic character D. covalent nature
23. When ethanol is heated with excess concentrated tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid, the organic product formed is A.
Ethanal B. Ethanoic acid C. Ethane D. Ethene
24. The organic compound with the following structure represents
CH3
I
CH3 ----C ------ C2H5
I
OH
A. Primary alkanol B. Secondary Alkanol C. Tertiary Alkanol D. analkanol
25. What is the IUPAC name of the compound with the following structure
H
I A. 2-methyl butane B. 2-methyl prop-2-ene
H ------ C -----C = C ---H C. 2-methyl prop-1-ene D. but-2-ene
I I
H H
H--C—H
I
H
26. Protein in acid solution undergo A. polymerization B. hydrolysis C. fermentation D. substitution.
27. The intermedicate product formed when ethanol is progressively oxidised to ethanioc acid with potassium
heptaoxodichromate (VI) is A. butanal B. ethanal C. methanal D. propanal.
28. The formular CH2O for ethanoic acid is regarded as its A. molecular formular
B. general formular C. empirical formular D. structural formular.
29. An organic compound which gave effervescence with sodium hydrogen carbonate (IV) is likely to be an A.
alkanioc acid B. aromatic hydrocarbon C. alkanoate D. alkanone.
30. The chemicals used for testing for the presence of proteins include the following expect A. million’s reagent
B. fehling’s solution C. concentrated HNO3 D. NaOH(aq) and CuSO4(aq).
31. Plastics which lose their plasticity on being subjected to heat are said to be
A. thermosetting B. polymeric C. thermoplastic D. biodegradable.
32. Detergents are better than soaps for washing in hard water because A. hard water contains insoluble calcium
salts B. they contain bleaching powder C. they contain palmitic acid d. they do not form insoluble calcium and
magnesium salts
33. Fructose and glucose are A. allotropes of each other B. both disaccharides
C. isomer of each other D. isotopes of each other.

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34. An example of a non-reducing sugar is A. fructose B. glucose C. lactose D. sucrose.
35. Which of the following is used widely in the manufacturing of flavours and perfumes A. Alkanoates B.
Alkanones C. Alkanes D. Aliphatic compounds.
36. The by-product of the fermentation of sugar to ethanol is A. propane-1,2,3-triol B. ethyl ethanoate
C. ethanedioic acid D. carbon(IV)oxide.
37. The ash, used for making black soap locally, provides A. glycerol B. potassium ion C. sodium chloride D.
stearic acid.
38. The hydrolysis of groundnut oil by potassium hydroxide is known as
A. hydrogenation B. saponification C. esterification D. neutralization.
39. The alkanoate CH3CH2COOC2H5 is the product of the reaction between
A. ethanoic acid and ethanol B. ethanoic acid and propanol C. propanoic acid and ethanol D. propanoic acid and
propanol.
40. The alkanol obtained from the production of soap is A. dihydric alkanol
B. monohydric alkanol C. trihydricalkanol D. tertiary alkanol.
41. CH3COOH(g) CH4(g) + CO2(g). The reaction above is
A. acidification B. carboxylation C. decarboxylation D. methylation.
42. Which of the following structures corresponds to the functional group of alkyl alkanoate?
O
A. C O H B. C O H

C. C O C D. C O C
O

WEEK 7
TOPIC: METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
Metals are elements whose atoms ionize by electron loss. They show certain characteristics which
distinguish them from non-metals. Their physical properties depend on the arrangement of their
atoms or molecules in crystal lattice when in the solid state and the bonds that bind the atoms or
molecules in the solid, liquid or gaseous state. The chemical properties depend on the number of
valence electrons present in their atomic structure. More than 75% of known elements are metals.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
- High melting and boiling points
- Characteristic luster
- Malleability i.e. ability to be hammered into sheets
- Hard but not brittle with great tensile strength.
- Good conductors of heat and electricity
- Ductility i.e. can be drawn into thin wire
- Relatively high densities
- Sonorous i.e. gives off a sound note when hit
Exceptions
1. Mercury is a liquid at room temperature with a melting point of -39 0C.
2. Sodium and Potassium are soft, light metals with low melting points of 97 0C and 630C
respectively.
Metals are solids at room temperature and exist as crystal lattice in which their atoms are held
together by strong metallic bonds. Non-metals exist as covalent molecules held together by weak
forces except carbon in the form of diamond and graphite.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
- Ionization behavior: metallic atoms have a great tendency to ionize and form positive ions
by losing electrons. Thus, they are electropositive.
- Reducing agents: they are reducing agents because they donate electrons readily during
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