1 3

Chapter: Separation and Isolation of Plant Constituents  Based on mass-to-charge ratio (m/z).

ô 1. Introduction  Helps determine molecular weight and structure.

 Plants contain many chemical constituents such as alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, tannins, etc. ✅ Use: Structure elucidation of alkaloids, glycosides, etc.

 These are called natural products or secondary metabolites. 4. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

 To study their effects or use them as medicine, we must separate, isolate, and identify them. a. 1H-NMR (Proton NMR)

 Modern techniques like chromatography and spectroscopy help in this process.  Studies hydrogen atoms (protons) in a molecule.

ô 2. Need for Separation and Identification  Tells us about number and type of hydrogen atoms.

 To study or develop drugs from natural sources. b. 13C-NMR (Carbon NMR)

 To identify active ingredients in medicinal plants.  Studies carbon atoms.

 To ensure purity, safety, and standardization of herbal drugs.  Helps understand carbon skeleton of compound.

. Separation & Isolation Techniques ✅ Use: Complete structure elucidation of natural products.

A. Chromatographic Techniques 5. Other Advanced Techniques

Used to separate compounds from mixtures.  LC-MS (Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry): Combines separation + identification.

1. Paper Chromatography (PC)  GC-MS (Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry): Used for essential oils.

 Simple method.  UV-Vis + HPLC: Used for standardization of herbal extracts.

 Sample is placed on filter paper. ô 5. Steps in Structure Elucidation

 Solvent moves by capillary action, separating compounds. 1. Isolate compound using chromatography.

 Rf value is used for identification. 2. Use UV to detect conjugated systems.

2. Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) 3. Use IR to identify functional groups.

 Similar to PC, but uses glass plate coated with silica. 4. Use MS for molecular mass & fragmentation.

 More accurate than PC. 5. Use 1H and 13C NMR for full structure.

 Can be visualized under UV light or iodine vapor. 6. Confirm with comparison to known compounds.

3. Column Chromatography ô 6. Summary Chart of Techniques

 Uses a glass column filled with adsorbent (e.g., silica). Technique Purpose Use for Natural Products

 Compounds are separated as they pass through the column with solvent. PC/TLC Separation, Rf value Alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids

5 7

 Act as emulsifying and suspending agents

1. Q: What is separation in pharmacognosy?  Some serve as diagnostic aids or nutrients

A: Separation is the process of dividing a mixture of plant constituents into individual
components for study or medicinal use. ô CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES

2. Q: What is isolation? Type Description Examples

A: Isolation is the process of obtaining a pure compound from a mixture after separation.
Monosaccharides Simple sugars (1 unit) Glucose, Fructose
3. Q: Why do we isolate plant constituents?
A: To study their structure, medicinal activity, purity, and to use them in drug development. Disaccharides 2 sugar units Sucrose, Lactose

Polysaccharides Multiple sugar units Starch, Cellulose

ô Chromatography Viva

4. Q: What is chromatography? ô ROLE OF SUGARS AS ADJUVANTS IN DRUGS

A: Chromatography is a technique used to separate the components of a mixture based on their
movement through a stationary phase under the influence of a mobile phase.  Sweetening agents – Sucrose, dextrose

5. Q: Name types of chromatography.  Viscosity enhancers – Starch, cellulose

A: Paper chromatography, Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC), Column chromatography, HPLC,
 Bulking agents – Lactose in tablets
Gas Chromatography (GC).
 Binder and disintegrants – Starch and its derivatives
6. Q: What is the mobile phase in chromatography?
A: It is the solvent or gas that moves through the stationary phase and carries the sample with it.  Stabilizers in suspensions – Mucilage

7. Q: What is Rf value? ô ROLE OF IMPURITIES IN SUGAR SUBSTANCES

A: It is the ratio of the distance travelled by the compound to the distance travelled by the
solvent front in chromatography. Common Impurities:

ô Spectroscopy Viva  Heavy metals

8. Q: What is spectroscopy?  Sulphated ash

A: Spectroscopy is a technique used to study how molecules absorb or emit light (energy) to
 Lead or arsenic compounds
understand their structure.
 Microbial contamination
9. Q: Name different types of spectroscopic techniques.
A: UV spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy, Mass spectrometry (MS), NMR (1H and 13C), LC-MS, GC- Effects of Impurities:
MS.
 Alter chemical properties
10. Q: What is the full form of NMR?
A: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.  Cause toxicity

11. Q: What does UV spectroscopy detect?  Reduce shelf-life

A: Conjugated systems and the λmax of compounds. Control Methods:
 9 11

Feature Description ô CELLULOSE AND CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES

Source Hydrolysis of starch ✅ Cellulose

Definition:
Uses Sweetener, syrup base, humectant in pharmaceutical preparations
A polysaccharide made of β-D-glucose units joined by β-1,4-glycosidic bonds. It is the main structural
component of the plant cell wall.

✅ 4. Fructose Feature Description

Feature Description Source Cotton, wood pulp

Source Fruits, honey Constituents Cellulose (C6H10O5)n

Constituents Levulose Uses Tablet binder, disintegrant, bulk laxative

Uses Sweetening agent, used in diabetic products

✅ Powdered Cellulose

✅ 5. Lactose Feature Description

Feature Description Preparation Mechanical grinding of cellulose

Source Milk Uses Bulking agent, fiber supplement

Constituents Glucose + Galactose

✅ Microcrystalline Cellulose
Uses Diluent in tablets and capsules
Feature Description

✅ 6. Xylose Preparation Partial hydrolysis of cellulose

Feature Description Uses Filler and disintegrant in tablets

Source Wood

✅ Methyl Cellulose
Constituents Pentose sugar
Feature Description
Uses Diagnostic agent in malabsorption tests
Preparation Cellulose + Methyl chloride

✅ 7. Caramel Uses Laxative, emulsifier, thickener

13 15

Feature Description 1. Introduction to Alkaloids

Uses Emulsifying agent, adhesive in tablets Definition:

Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing organic compounds derived from plant sources. They are basic in
nature, often with strong physiological actions on humans and animals.

✅ 3. Sodium Alginate Origin of the term:

The word alkaloid comes from “alkali-like”, reflecting their alkaline (basic) chemical properties.
Feature Description
2. Properties of Alkaloids
Source Brown seaweed (Laminaria)
 Mostly bitter in taste
Constituents Alginate
 Solid, crystalline, colorless or white, some may be colored

Uses Suspending agent, used in dental impression materials  Soluble in alcohol, ether, and organic solvents

 Insoluble in water (free base), but soluble as salts in water

✅ 4. Agar  Usually form salts with acids (e.g., HCl, H₂SO₄)

Feature Description  Thermolabile (can decompose on heating)

Source Red algae (Gelidium, Gracilaria) 3. Classification of Alkaloids

Constituents Agarose, agaropectin Class Structure Based Group Examples

Uses Laxative, culture media base Pyridine and Piperidine Contain pyridine or piperidine Lobelia, Areca nut

Tropane Contain tropane ring Belladonna, Datura, Hyoscyamus

✅ 5. Pectin Quinoline Contain quinoline ring Cinchona

Feature Description Isoquinoline Contain isoquinoline ring Opium, Ipecac

Source Citrus fruits, apple Indole Contain indole ring Rauwolfia, Ergot, Nux vomica

Constituents Polygalacturonic acid Imidazole Contain imidazole ring Pilocarpus

Uses Demulcent, antidiarrheal agent Steroidal Contain steroid nucleus Veratrum

Alkaloidal amines Amines acting like alkaloids Ephedra, Colchicum

ô VIVA QUESTIONS Purine bases Derived from purine nucleus Tea, Coffee

1. What are carbohydrates?

→ Organic compounds made of C, H, and O, serving as energy sources.
 17 19

Botanical Local Botanical

Drug Origin Family Constituents Uses Drug Local Name Origin Family Constituents Uses
Name Name Name

Lobelia Indian North Respiratory stimulant, Veratrum White Antihypertensive

Lobelia Campanulaceae Lobeline Veratrum Europe Melanthiaceae Veratrine
inflata tobacco America expectorant album hellebore (historic)

(b) Tropane Alkaloids (h) Alkaloidal Amines

Botanical Local
Drug Local Name Origin Family Constituents Uses Drug Botanical Name Origin Family Constituents Uses
Name Name

Antispasmodic, Bronchodilator, CNS

Atropa Deadly Atropine, Ephedra Ephedra sinica Ma Huang China Ephedraceae Ephedrine
Belladonna Europe Solanaceae mydriatic, stimulant
belladonna nightshade Hyoscyamine
anticholinergic
Colchicum Anti-gout, anti-
Colchicum - Europe Liliaceae Colchicine
Hyoscyamus Hyoscyamine, Sedative, autumnale inflammatory
Hyoscyamus Henbane Europe Solanaceae
niger Scopolamine antispasmodic

Datura Scopolamine, Bronchodilator, motion

Stramonium Dhatura India Solanaceae (i) Purine Bases
stramonium Atropine sickness
Botanical Local
Drug Origin Family Constituents Uses
Name Name
(c) Quinoline Alkaloids
Camellia Caffeine,
Tea Chai China Theaceae CNS stimulant, antioxidant
Local sinensis Theobromine
Drug Botanical Name Origin Family Constituents Uses
Name
CNS stimulant, mental
Coffee Coffea arabica Coffee Africa Rubiaceae Caffeine
Cinchona Quinine South Quinine, Antimalarial, alertness
Cinchona Rubiaceae
officinalis bark America Quinidine antipyretic

VIVA QUESTIONS
(d) Isoquinoline Alkaloids
1. What are alkaloids?
Local
Drug Botanical Name Origin Family Constituents Uses 2. Name two identification tests for alkaloids.
Name
3. Which alkaloid is used in glaucoma treatment?
Cephaelis
Ipecac Ipecac Brazil Rubiaceae Emetine, Cephaeline Expectorant, emetic
ipecacuanha 4. Name two plants containing tropane alkaloids.

Opium Papaver Afim Papaveraceae Morphine, Codeine, 5. Which plant contains vincristine and vinblastine?
Asia, Analgesic, cough

21 23

Type of Glycoside Aglycone Type Examples Botanical Local Active

Drug Family Origin Uses
Name Name Constituents
Anthraquinone Glycosides Anthraquinone Senna, Aloe
Glycyrrhiza Mediterranean, Expectorant, anti-
Saponin Glycosides Triterpenoid/Steroidal Liquorice, Sarsaparilla Liquorice Mulethi Fabaceae Glycyrrhizin
glabra India ulcer

Cyanogenic Glycosides Cyanohydrin Wild Cherry Tonic, blood

Sarsaparilla Smilax regelii - Liliaceae South America Sarsaponin
purifier
Isothiocyanate Glycosides Sulphur compounds Black Mustard

Lactone Glycosides Lactones Cantharides

ô D. Cyanogenic Glycosides
Aldehyde Glycosides Aromatic Aldehyde Vanilla
Release hydrocyanic acid on hydrolysis.
Miscellaneous Glycosides Various types Gentian, Quassia
Drug Botanical Name Local Name Family Origin Active Constituents Uses

Wild Cherry Prunus serotina - Rosaceae USA Amygdalin Sedative, antitussive

ô Chemistry of Glycosides

 Glycone: Commonly glucose, rhamnose, galactose.

ô E. Isothiocyanate Glycosides
 Aglycone: Responsible for the pharmacological effect.
Known for their pungent flavor and antiseptic action.
 Bond: The sugar and aglycone are linked via an ether (O-glycosidic) bond.
Botanical Local Active
ô Extraction & Isolation Methods Drug Family Origin Uses
Name Name Constituents
1. Extraction:
Black Counterirritant,
Brassica nigra Kali sarson Brassicaceae India Sinigrin
o Maceration or percolation with water/alcohol. Mustard stimulant

o Use of acid or enzymatic hydrolysis to break glycosidic bond.

2. Isolation: ô F. Lactone Glycosides

o Precipitation, chromatography, crystallization, or solvent extraction. Local Active

Drug Botanical Name Family Origin Uses
Name Constituents
3. Identification Tests:

o Keller-Killiani Test – for cardiac glycosides Cantharis Vesicant, aphrodisiac

Cantharides Spanish Fly Insect Europe Cantharidin
vesicatoria (toxic)
o Borntrager’s Test – for anthraquinone glycosides

o Legal’s Test – for digitalis-like glycosides

ô G. Aldehyde Glycosides
 25 27

B) Digitalis ✅ Plant Local Active

Botanical Name Family Origin Uses
C) Rhubarb Name Name Constituents
D) Sarsaparilla
Dioscorea Tropical Precursor for steroid
3. Borntrager’s test is used for: Yam Ratalu Dioscoreaceae Diosgenin
species regions hormone synthesis
A) Cardiac glycosides
B) Cyanogenic glycosides Trigonella
C) Anthraquinone glycosides ✅ Yamogenin, Anti-inflammatory,
Fenugreek Methi foenum- Fabaceae India
D) Saponins Gitogenin hormone synthesis
graecum

4. Which of the following contains vanillin as an active constituent?

A) Aloe
B) Vanilla ✅ 3. Bile Acids (From Plants)
C) Rhubarb
These are not produced directly by plants but plant extracts (sapogenins) help in semi-synthesis of bile
D) Cochineal
acids.
5. Amygdalin is present in:
A) Wild cherry ✅ Compound Plant Source Use
B) Aloe
Chenodeoxycholic acid From steroid precursors Treatment of gallstones, liver disorders
C) Digitalis
D) Senna

Introduction to Plant Steroid

4. Withanolides
Definition:
These are steroidal lactones with medicinal properties.
Plant steroids are naturally occurring organic compounds with a characteristic
cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene ring structure. They are structurally similar to animal steroids and Botanical
play various roles in plant growth, reproduction, and defense mechanisms. In pharmacy, plant steroids Plant Name Local Name Family Origin Constituents Uses
Name
serve as precursors for steroidal drugs such as corticosteroids, sex hormones, and anti-inflammatory
agents. Withania Withaferin A, Adaptogen, anti-stress,
Ashwagandha Ashwagandha Solanaceae India
somnifera Withanolide D immunomodulator
Types of Plant Steroids:

1. Plant Sterols (e.g., β-sitosterol)

5. Ecdysones
2. Steroidal Sapogenins (e.g., Diosgenin)
Plant steroids that mimic insect molting hormones.
3. Bile Acids

4. Withanolides Plant Name Botanical Name Family Origin Constituents Uses

5. Ecdysones Muscle growth,

Achyranthes Achyranthes aspera Amaranthaceae India Ecdysterone
performance enhancer

Rhaponticum Rhaponticum Asteraceae Europe 20- Anabolic, sports

ô Extraction and Isolation of Plant Steroids

29 31

b) Dioscorea species Olive Oil

c) Digitalis
d) Cinchona Feature Description
✅ Answer: b) Dioscorea species
Botanical Name Olea europaea
3. Withanolides are present in:
a) Trigonella foenum-graecum Local Name Zaitoon ka tel
b) Withania somnifera
c) Mentha piperita Family Oleaceae
d) Catha edulis
Origin Mediterranean region
✅ Answer: b) Withania somnifera

4. Ecdysones are known for: Constituents Oleic acid, Linoleic acid, Palmitic acid
a) Treating asthma
Uses Nutritional, Laxative, Carrier oil
b) Insect hormone mimicry
c) Causing hallucinations
d) Cardiac activity
✅ Answer: b) Insect hormone mimicry Coconut Oil

5. Which of these is NOT a plant steroid? Feature Description

a) Campesterol
b) Cholesterol Botanical Name Cocos nucifera
c) Stigmasterol
d) β-sitosterol Local Name Nariyal ka tel
✅ Answer: b) Cholesterol
Family Arecaceae
CHAPTER: LIPIDS
Origin Tropical Asia
1. Introduction
Constituents Lauric acid, Myristic acid, Caprylic acid
Lipids are a broad group of naturally occurring organic compounds that are insoluble in water but
soluble in organic solvents like ether, chloroform, and alcohol. They are vital to plant and animal life and Uses Hair oil, Emollient, Skin conditioner
are used in pharmacy for their therapeutic and formulation properties.

2. Classification of Lipids
Other Fixed Oils in Table Format
Lipids are classified into:
Oil Botanical Name Family Constituents Uses
A. Fixed Oils

 Liquid at room temperature. Cotton Seed Oil Gossypium spp. Malvaceae Linoleic acid Cooking, Injection vehicles

 Derived from seeds or nuts. Almond Oil Prunus amygdalus Rosaceae Oleic, Linoleic acid Skin emollient

 Non-volatile. Mustard Oil Brassica nigra Brassicaceae Erucic acid Massage oil, Rubefacient
 33 35

C) Sheep wool ✅
D) Bee honey
6. WAXES
3. Main use of cocoa butter in pharmacy is:
Beeswax A) Eye drops
B) Tablet coating
Feature Description
C) Suppository base ✅
Botanical Name From Apis mellifera (Honeybee) D) Antiseptic

4. Which of the following is a wax?

Local Name Mom ka mail
A) Lanolin
Origin Worldwide B) Castor oil
C) Spermaceti ✅
Constituents Myricyl palmitate, Cerotic acid D) Soybean oil

Uses Base for ointments, Lip balms, Polishes 5. The main acid in castor oil is:
A) Stearic acid
B) Ricinoleic acid ✅
C) Palmitic acid
Carnauba Wax D) Oleic acid

Feature Description

Botanical Name Copernicia prunifera VOLATILE OILS (ESSENTIAL OILS)

Family Arecaceae (Also called: Ethereal oils or Essential oils)

ô INTRODUCTION TO VOLATILE OILS

Origin Brazil
Volatile oils are natural, aromatic oils obtained from various plant parts such as leaves, flowers, bark,
Constituents Esters of cinnamic acid, alcohols fruits, and roots. They are called "volatile" because they evaporate easily at room temperature and
produce a strong aroma. These oils are used in flavoring, perfumery, and medicinal purposes.
Uses Tablet coating, Cosmetic products
ô CHARACTERISTICS OF VOLATILE OILS

 Volatile (evaporate on exposure to air)

Spermaceti
 Possess strong aromatic odor
Feature Description
 Insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils
Source From the head of Physeter macrocephalus (Sperm whale)
 Do not leave a permanent stain on paper (unlike fixed oils)
Constituents Cetyl palmitate
 Undergo oxidation and resinification on exposure to air
Uses Emollient, Ointment base, Cosmetic prep  Stored in tightly closed, dark amber-colored bottles

37 39

ô Description: ô Description:

 Leaves and flowering tops of Mentha piperita  Obtained from the peel of Citrus limon

ô Table: ô Table:

Category Details Category Details

Botanical Name Mentha piperita Botanical Name Citrus limon

Local Name Pudina Local Name Nimbu

Origin Europe, India Origin Mediterranean, India

Family Lamiaceae Family Rutaceae

Constituents Menthol (main), Menthone, Menthyl acetate Constituents Limonene (main), Citral

Uses Antispasmodic, carminative, flavoring agent, antiseptic Uses Flavoring agent, carminative, antioxidant

ô 2. Clove ô 6. Turpentine Oil

ô Description: ô Description:

 Dried flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum  Oleoresin from Pinus species

ô Table: ô Table:

Category Details Category Details

Botanical Name Syzygium aromaticum Botanical Name Pinus spp.

Local Name Laung Local Name Tarpine ka tel

Origin Indonesia, India Origin USA, India

Family Myrtaceae Family Pinaceae

Constituents Eugenol (main), Caryophyllene Constituents α-pinene (main), β-pinene

Uses Dental analgesic, antiseptic, flavoring agent Uses Counter-irritant, rubefacient, expectorant

ô 3. Eucalyptus ô 7. Spearmint Oil

 41 43

5. Q: Name two volatile oils with aldehydes.  Solvent Extraction

A: Lemon oil (citral), Cinnamon oil (cinnamaldehyde).
 Steam Distillation (for oleoresins)
✅ MCQs (Multiple Choice Questions)
 Incision of bark (gummosis)
1. Clove oil contains which of the following major constituent?
a) Menthol ô 6. Identification Tests for Resins
b) Eugenol ✅  Solubility Test: Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents
c) Citral
d) Cineole  Turbidity with Water: Addition of water to alcoholic solution forms turbidity

2. Which oil is obtained by expression method?  Heat Test: Softens on heating and melts
a) Clove oil
 FeCl₃ Test: No characteristic color, helps distinguish from tannins
b) Eucalyptus oil
c) Lemon oil ✅ ô 7. Pharmaceutical Applications
d) Turpentine oil
 Adhesive: In plasters and ointments
3. Volatile oils are stored in which type of container?
a) Plastic bottle  Antiseptic/Antimicrobial: e.g., Benzoin
b) Amber glass bottle ✅
 Flavoring agent: e.g., Myrrh
c) Iron container
d) Steel box  Expectorant: e.g., Tolu balsam

4. Turpentine oil is derived from which plant?  Laxative: e.g., Jalap

a) Mentha
b) Pinus ✅  Incense and fumigation: e.g., Olibanum
c) Eucalyptus
ô 8. Important Resin-Containing Drugs
d) Cinnamomum
Below are major examples with full botanical details in table format.
5. Menthol is obtained from:
a) Lemon ô Colophony (Rosin)
b) Spearmint
c) Peppermint ✅ Botanical Local
Origin Family Constituents Uses
d) Clove Name Name

Chapter: Resins and Oleoresins USA, Resin acids (abietic Adhesive, plasters,
Pinus spp. Rosin Pinaceae
Europe acid) ointments
ô 1. Introduction to Resins

Resins are solid or semi-solid amorphous substances obtained as plant exudates or prepared
synthetically. They are usually insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol or other organic solvents. ô Turpentine (Oleoresin)
ô Definition:
Botanical Name Local Name Origin Family Constituents Uses

45 47

ô 9. Viva Questions  Contain hydroxyl groups (-OH) that bind with proteins

1. What are resins?  Galloyl units in hydrolysable tannins

→ They are amorphous plant exudates insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
 Flavan-3-ol units in condensed tannins
2. Give examples of oleo-gum-resins.
→ Asafoetida, Myrrh ô 5. Extraction of Tannins

 Solvents: Water, alcohol

3. What is the main constituent of Colophony?
→ Abietic acid  Procedure: Cold maceration or hot percolation depending on plant part
4. How are resins classified?  Precipitation: Addition of gelatin or salts causes precipitation due to protein binding
→ True resins, Oleoresins, Gum resins, Oleo-gum-resins, Balsams, Resin glycosides
ô 6. Identification Tests for Tannins
5. What is the pharmaceutical use of Benzoin?
→ Used as an antiseptic and expectorant. Test Observation

ô 10. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) Ferric chloride test Blue-black (hydrolysable) or green-black (condensed) color
1. Colophony is obtained from:
Goldbeater’s skin test Positive tanning reaction
A) Ferula foetida
B) Commiphora myrrha Gelatin test White precipitate forms
C) Pinus spp. ✅
D) Myroxylon balsamum Lead acetate test White precipitate with tannins

2. Which of the following is an oleo-gum-resin? ô 7. Pharmaceutical Applications

A) Rosin
B) Turpentine  Astringent in diarrhea, wounds, hemorrhoids
C) Asafoetida ✅
 Anti-diarrheal, anti-hemorrhagic
D) Tolu balsam
 Styptic to stop bleeding
3. Main constituent of Benzoin is:
A) Abietic acid  Antioxidant and antimicrobial activity
B) Cinnamic acid ✅
C) Ferulic acid  Used in tanning leather and ink preparation
D) Tannic acid
ô 8. Important Tannin-Containing Drugs
4. Asafoetida is used as a:
Here are essential examples with all botanical data in table format:
A) Diuretic
B) Carminative ✅ ô Black Catechu
C) Sedative
D) Laxative Botanical Local
Origin Family Constituents Uses
Name Name
5. Which family does Myrrh belong to?
A) Fabaceae
 49 51

Local Class Examples Effect on Body

Botanical Name Origin Family Constituents Uses
Name
Other Plant Toxins Oxalates, Lectins, Resins GI irritation, convulsions, etc.
virginiana Hazel oils skin toner

ô 4. Common Natural Toxic Plants and Their Toxicants

ô 9. Viva Questions
Below is a structured table of toxic plants with botanical data:
1. What are tannins?
→ High molecular weight polyphenolic compounds with astringent properties.

2. Name the two main types of tannins. ô Nux Vomica

→ Hydrolysable and Condensed tannins.
Local Toxic
Botanical Name Origin Family Toxic Effects
3. What is the Goldbeater’s skin test used for? Name Constituents
→ Identification of true tannins based on tanning ability.
Strychnos nux- Strychnine, Convulsions, CNS stimulation,
Kuchla India Loganiaceae
4. Which tannin is present in Nutgall? vomica Brucine respiratory arrest
→ Gallotannin.

5. What is the pharmaceutical use of Arjuna bark?

→ Used as a cardiotonic and astringent. ô Castor

ô 10. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) Botanical Local Toxic

Origin Family Toxic Effects
Name Name Constituents
1. Tannins give which color with FeCl₃ (ferric chloride)?
A) Red Ricinus India, Ricin (protein Inhibits protein synthesis,
Arand Euphorbiaceae
B) Blue/Green-black ✅ communis Africa toxin) organ failure
C) Yellow
D) Pink

2. Hydrolysable tannins on hydrolysis yield: ô Abrus

A) Flavonoids
B) Catechol Local
Botanical Name Origin Family Toxic Constituents Toxic Effects
C) Gallic/Ellagic acid ✅ Name
D) Alkaloids
Abrus Abrin (protein Extremely toxic, causes paralysis,
Ratti India Fabaceae
3. Nutgall is obtained from: precatorius toxin) death
A) Quercus infectoria ✅
B) Acacia catechu
C) Terminalia arjuna ô Digitalis
D) Emblica officinalis

4. Tannins are mainly used as:

A) Sedatives

53 55

ô 6. Symptoms of Natural Toxicity Chapter: NUTRACEUTICALS AND COSMECEUTICALS

System Affected Symptoms ô 1. Introduction

Nervous system Convulsions, hallucinations, paralysis ô Nutraceuticals

Nutraceuticals are food or part of food that provide medical or health benefits, including the prevention
GI tract Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
and treatment of disease. These substances bridge the gap between nutrition and pharmaceuticals.
Respiratory system Difficulty breathing, arrest ô Cosmeceuticals

Cardiovascular Irregular heartbeat, hypotension Cosmeceuticals are cosmetic products with bioactive ingredients claimed to have medical or drug-like
benefits, especially for improving skin, hair, or aging conditions.
Skin/Eyes Irritation, burning, swelling
ô 2. Importance in Pharmacognosy

 Nutraceuticals help in preventive healthcare

ô 7. Treatment / Antidotes
 Cosmeceuticals offer therapeutic effects via topical applications
 Activated charcoal – to absorb unabsorbed poison
 Both are natural product-based, hence studied in pharmacognosy
 Induced vomiting/lavage – if ingestion was recent
 Increasing demand for herbal and organic personal care and dietary products
 Antidotes:
ô 3. Classification of Nutraceuticals
o Atropine for organophosphate poisoning
Type Description Examples
o Digibind for digitalis overdose
Dietary Supplements Supply nutrients missing in diet Multivitamins, Omega-3
o Supportive care – IV fluids, oxygen, seizure control
Functional Foods Provide benefits beyond basic nutrition Probiotic yogurt, oats
 Chelating agents – for metal toxicity (e.g., EDTA for lead)

ô 8. Pharmaceutical and Legal Importance Formulated for dietary management of Glucose powder, electrolyte
Medicinal Foods
diseases drinks
 Standardization: Helps identify toxic contaminants in herbal medicines
Herbal Products Plant-based products with health benefits Garlic capsules, Ginseng tea
 Safety labeling: Toxic drugs must be properly labeled and dispensed
Probiotics/Prebiotics Maintain gut flora and improve digestion Curd, Lactobacillus products
 Toxicological studies: Necessary in herbal drug development

 Forensic use: Identification in cases of poisoning or suicide

ô 9. Viva Questions ô 4. Classification of Cosmeceuticals

1. What are natural toxicants? Type Target Use Examples

→ Harmful natural compounds found in plants or animals.
Anti-aging agents Delay wrinkles, aging signs Retinol, Vitamin E, Green Tea extract
 57 59

ô Garlic B) Amla
C) Bhringraj ✅
Botanical Local D) Garlic
Origin Family Constituents Uses
Name Name
3. Which of the following is NOT a cosmeceutical use?
Central Allicin, Sulfur Cholesterol lowering, A) Acne reduction
Allium sativum Lehsun Liliaceae
Asia compounds Antioxidant B) Wrinkle prevention
C) Diabetes control ✅
D) Skin hydration
ô Bhringraj 4. Amla belongs to which plant family?
A) Zingiberaceae
Botanical Name Local Name Origin Family Constituents Uses
B) Euphorbiaceae ✅
C) Liliaceae
Eclipta alba Bhringraj India Asteraceae Wedelolactone, Ecliptine Hair growth, Dandruff control
D) Asteraceae

5. Neem contains the active constituent:

ô Neem A) Allicin
B) Curcumin
Local C) Azadirachtin ✅
Botanical Name Origin Family Constituents Uses
Name D) Aloin

Azadirachta Azadirachtin, Anti-bacterial, Anti-acne, Blood Chapter: TUMOUR INHIBITORS FROM PLANTS
Neem India Meliaceae
indica Nimbin purifier
ô 1. Introduction

Tumour inhibitors from plants are naturally occurring phytochemicals that prevent, suppress, or treat
cancer (tumour) by interfering with the uncontrolled cell growth and proliferation of cancerous cells.
ô 6. Mechanism of Action (Pathogenesis)

 Antioxidants like Vitamin C, E, and Curcumin remove harmful free radicals from the body
 These are also known as plant-derived anticancer agents

 Herbal actives like Aloe and Neem exhibit anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects on skin
 They work through various mechanisms such as cell cycle arrest, apoptosis induction, anti-
angiogenesis, and immune modulation
 Hair tonics like Bhringraj promote blood circulation and strengthen hair follicles
 Pharmacognosy studies these plant sources for the discovery of new anticancer drugs
 Gut health supplements maintain microbial balance (probiotics)
ô 2. Importance
 Skin lightening agents reduce melanin production
 Cancer is a leading cause of death globally.
ô 7. Applications of Nutraceuticals and Cosmeceuticals
 Synthetic chemotherapy agents have severe side effects, hence safer natural alternatives are
Field Application explored.

Preventive medicine Immunity boost, antioxidant action, cholesterol control  Many modern anticancer drugs were originally derived from plant sources (e.g., Vincristine,
Taxol).

ô 3. Mechanism of Action of Plant Antitumour Agents

61 63

ô Camptotheca (Source of Camptothecin) Chapter: CLINICAL PHARMACOGNOSY (Herbal Treatment of Common Diseases)

Botanical Name Local Name Origin Family Constituents Uses ô 1. Introduction

Camptotheca acuminata Happy tree China Nyssaceae Camptothecin Colon cancer, Lung cancer Clinical Pharmacognosy is the application of medicinal plants and natural products in the treatment and
prevention of human diseases. It integrates the use of herbal drugs into clinical practice and evaluates
their effectiveness, dosage, and safety.

ô Curcuma (Turmeric)  Focus is on scientifically validated herbal remedies

Botanical Name Local Name Origin Family Constituents Uses  Encourages evidence-based use of traditional medicine

 Herbal treatment is often used in chronic illnesses, lifestyle disorders, and mild infections
Curcuma longa Haldi India Zingiberaceae Curcumin Chemopreventive, Anti-inflammatory
ô 2. Importance of Clinical Pharmacognosy

Aspect Explanation
ô 5. Role in Modern Medicine
Holistic healing Treats not just symptoms but the root cause with fewer side effects
Plant Drug Modern Drug Name Cancer Treated
Affordable and accessible Herbs are cost-effective and locally available
Vincristine Oncovin Leukemia, Hodgkin’s disease
Chronic disease management Effective for diseases like diabetes, hypertension, and arthritis
Vinblastine Velban Breast cancer, Lymphoma
Integration in modern therapy Used as complementary therapy in cancer, asthma, and liver disorders
Podophyllotoxin Etoposide Testicular cancer, Lung cancer

Paclitaxel Taxol Ovarian, Breast, Non-small cell lung cancer

ô 3. Herbal Treatment of Common Diseases
Camptothecin Topotecan Colon, Cervix cancer
Major
Disease Herb Botanical Local
Origin Family Constituent Uses
Category Name Name Name
s
ô 6. Limitations and Challenges
Lowers
Gymnemic
 Plant sources are limited and sometimes endangered (e.g., Taxus brevifolia) Gymnem blood sugar,
Gymnema Apocynace acids,
Diabetes a Gurmar India stimulates
sylvestre ae Saponins,
 Need for semi-synthesis due to low natural yield sylvestre insulin
Flavonoids
secretion
 Standardization and toxicity testing are necessary Melia Azadirachti Hypoglycemi
Azadirachta
azadirach Neem India Meliaceae n, Nimbin, c,
 Drug resistance and side effects in some patients indica
ta Nimbidin antimicrobial
ô 7. Viva Questions Momordi Karela Charantin,
Momordica India, Cucurbitace Antidiabetic,
ca (Bitter Polypeptide
charantia Africa ae antioxidant
1. Name any two anticancer drugs obtained from plants. charantia gourd) -p, Vicine
→ Vincristine, Taxol Syzygiu Syzygium Jamboline, Reduces
Jamun India Myrtaceae
m cumini Ellagic acid, blood sugar,
 65 67

Major Major
Disease Herb Botanical Local Disease Herb Botanical Local
Origin Family Constituent Uses Origin Family Constituent Uses
Category Name Name Name Category Name Name Name
s s
Anti- Sorbitol,
Angelica Angelica Essential Prunus
inflammatory Prunus Europe, Fiber,
archangel archangelic Angelica Europe Apiaceae oils, domestic Plum Rosaceae Laxative
, skin domestica Asia Anthocyani
ica a Coumarins a
soothing ns
Menthol, Cooling,
Mentha Mentha Peppermi
Europe Lamiaceae Menthone, anti-itch,
piperita piperita nt ô 4. Limitations and Considerations in Clinical Use
Flavonoids antimicrobial
Citrus  Standardization of herbal drugs is essential
Vitamin C, Skin
Citrus limon, Lemon,
Asia Rutaceae Limonene, brightening,
spp. Citrus Orange  Risk of adulteration and incorrect dosage
Flavonoids antioxidant
aurantium
Commiph Guggulstero Anti-acne,  Some herbs interact with modern drugs
Commiphor Burseracea
ora Guggul India nes, anti-
a wightii e  Long-term clinical trials needed for safety
mukul Myrrhanol inflammatory
CNS ô 5. Viva Questions
Strychnos stimulant
CNS Strychnos Nux India, SE Loganiacea Strychnine,
nux- (low dose), 1. Which plant is known as 'herbal insulin'?
Disorders nux-vomica vomica Asia e Brucine
vomica paralysis → Gymnema sylvestre
treatment
Anticholiner 2. Name a hepatoprotective plant.
Datura Atropine,
Datura gic, → Silybum marianum (Milk Thistle)
stramoniu Dhatura Asia Solanaceae Scopolamin
stramonium Parkinson’s
m e 3. What is the action of Vasicine in respiratory disorders?
relief
Hemp, Analgesic, → It acts as a bronchodilator and expectorant
Cannabis Cannabis Central Cannabacea THC, CBD,
Marijuan antispasmodi
sativa sativa Asia e Terpenes 4. Name a herb used in treating hypertension.
a c
→ Rauwolfia serpentina
Papaver Morphine,
Papaver Opium Mediterran Papaverace Analgesic,
somnifer Codeine, 5. Which plant is used in cough and has glycyrrhizin?
somniferum poppy ean ae sedative
um Thebaine
→ Glycyrrhiza glabra (Mulethi)
Atropa Deadly Atropine, Antispasmod
Atropa
belladonn nightshad Europe Solanaceae Scopolamin ic, CNS ô 6. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
belladonna
a e e sedative
Anti- 1. Which of the following is used as a hepatoprotective herb?
Musculo- Thymoquin A) Senna
Nigella Nigella Ranunculac inflammatory
skeletal Kalonji SW Asia one,
sativa sativa eae , arthritis B) Silymarin ✅
Disorders Nigellidine
relief C) Neem
Pain relief, D) Ginger
Phycotis Trachysper Thymol,
Ajwain India Apiaceae anti-
ajowan mum ammi Carvacrol 2. Charantin is found in:
inflammatory
Trigonell Trigonella Diosgenin, Joint pain A) Tulsi
Methi India Fabaceae B) Karela ✅
a foenum- Trigonelline relief

69 71

Type Example Use Feature Nutraceuticals Cosmeceuticals

Functional Foods Probiotics, Fortified foods Improve gut health, immunity Route of Use Oral (food/supplement) Topical (creams, lotions)

Medicinal Foods Plant-based extracts like turmeric Disease prevention (e.g., cancer, arthritis) Mode of Action Works on metabolism, immunity Acts on skin cells, hair follicles

Farmaceuticals Bioengineered food from plants Deliver vaccines, proteins Example Turmeric, Amla, Green Tea Aloe Vera, Neem, Licorice

ô 3. Classification of Cosmeceuticals ô 6. Viva Questions

Type Examples Use 1. What are nutraceuticals?

→ Nutraceuticals are food-based products with health benefits beyond basic nutrition.
Moisturizers Aloe Vera, Cocoa Butter Skin hydration, anti-aging
2. Give one example of a plant used as a cosmeceutical.
Anti-acne Products Tea Tree Oil, Neem Prevent pimples and skin infections → Aloe vera – used for skin hydration and healing.

3. Which plant has curcumin as an active constituent?

Skin Whitening Agents Licorice extract, Kojic acid Lightening hyperpigmentation
→ Curcuma longa (Turmeric)
Hair Care Products Amla, Bhringraj, Shikakai Strengthen hair, reduce hair fall
4. What are cosmeceuticals?
→ Cosmetic products with medicinal or therapeutic effects.
Sunscreens Zinc oxide, Green tea extract Protect against UV radiation
5. Which plant is used for hair growth in cosmeceuticals?
→ Eclipta alba (Bhringraj)
ô 4. Medicinal Plants Used as Nutraceuticals and Cosmeceuticals
ô 7. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
ô A. Plants Used as Nutraceuticals
1. Which plant is commonly used in nutraceuticals for its antioxidant property?
Plant A) Senna
Botanical Name Family Constituents Nutraceutical Use B) Green Tea ✅
Name
C) Neem
Lowers cholesterol, improves D) Vasaka
Garlic Allium sativum Liliaceae Allicin, Selenium
heart health
2. Curcumin is an active compound of:
A) Garlic
Turmeric Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae Curcumin Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant
B) Turmeric ✅
Ginger Zingiber officinale Zingiberaceae Gingerol, Shogaol Digestive aid, relieves nausea C) Ginger
D) Licorice
Phyllanthus
Amla Euphorbiaceae Vitamin C, Gallic acid Immune booster, antioxidant 3. Which plant is a rich source of Vitamin C and used in both nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals?
emblica
A) Aloe Vera
Weight loss, antioxidant, anti- B) Amla ✅
Green Tea Camellia sinensis Theaceae Polyphenols, Catechins C) Neem
cancer
D) Senna
 73 75

Class Examples Activity 4. Which compound from turmeric has anticancer properties?
→ Curcumin
Alkaloids Vincristine, Vinblastine Disrupt mitosis in cancer cells
5. What is the mechanism of paclitaxel?
Terpenoids Taxol (Paclitaxel) Stabilizes microtubules, arrests mitosis → It stabilizes microtubules and prevents mitosis.

Lignans Podophyllotoxin Inhibits topoisomerase, stops DNA replication ô 10. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. Vinblastine is obtained from which plant?

Flavonoids & Phenolics Curcumin, Resveratrol Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, apoptosis
A) Taxus brevifolia
Glycosides Betulinic acid, Camptothecin Inhibit cell proliferation B) Camptotheca acuminata
C) Catharanthus roseus ✅
D) Curcuma longa

ô 5. Important Medicinal Plants with Tumor Inhibitory Activity 2. Podophyllotoxin is extracted from:
A) Mayapple ✅
Plant Name Botanical Name Family Constituents Anticancer/Tumor Activity B) Neem
C) Grape
Catharanthus D) Amla
Periwinkle Apocynaceae Vincristine, Vinblastine Leukemia, Hodgkin’s disease
roseus
3. Camptothecin is derived from:
Pacific Yew Taxus brevifolia Taxaceae Paclitaxel (Taxol) Breast, ovarian, lung cancer A) Catharanthus roseus
B) Camptotheca acuminata ✅
Podophyllum C) Vitis vinifera
Mayapple Berberidaceae Podophyllotoxin Testicular, lymphatic cancers
peltatum D) Taxus brevifolia

Camptotheca 4. Which plant compound inhibits angiogenesis in tumors?

Happy Tree Nyssaceae Camptothecin Colon, lung, breast cancers
acuminata A) Tannins
B) Alkaloids
Anti-inflammatory, inhibits C) Flavonoids ✅
Turmeric Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae Curcumin
tumor progression D) Mucilage

EGCG (Epigallocatechin 5. Which of the following is NOT a tumor inhibitor plant?

Green Tea Camellia sinensis Theaceae Prostate, breast, colon cancer
gallate) A) Curcuma longa
B) Azadirachta indica
Inhibits tumor initiation, C) Zingiber officinale ✅
Grape Vitis vinifera Vitaceae Resveratrol
promotion and progression D) Vitis vinifera

Azadirachta
Neem Meliaceae Nimbin, Azadirachtin Cytotoxic to cancer cells
indica

Betel Nut
Betula alba Betulaceae Betulinic acid Melanoma, neuroblastoma
Palm