UNIT-3

Algebraic Structures
Algebraic Systems with One Binary Operation
Binary Operation
Let S be a non-empty set. If f : S × S → S is a mapping, then f is called a binary
operation or binary composition in S.
The symbols +, ·, ∗, ⊕ etc are used to denote binary operations on a set.
 For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a + b ∈ S ⇒ + is a binary operation in S.
 For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a · b ∈ S ⇒ · is a binary operation in S.
 For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ◦ b ∈ S ⇒ ◦ is a binary operation in S.
 For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ S ⇒ ∗ is a binary operation in S.
 This is said to be the closure property of the binary operation and the set S is said to be
closed with respect to the binary operation.
Properties of Binary Operations
Commutative: ∗ is a binary operation in a set S. If for a, b ∈ S, a ∗ b = b ∗ a, then ∗ is said to be
commutative in S. This is called commutative law.
Associative: ∗ is a binary operation in a set S. If for a, b, c ∈ S, (a∗b)∗c = a∗(b∗c), then ∗ is said to
be associative in S. This is called associative law.
Distributive: ◦, ∗ are binary operations in S. If for a, b, c ∈ S, (i) a ◦ (b ∗ c) = (a ◦ b) ∗ (a ◦ c), (ii)
(b ∗ c) ◦ a = (b ◦ a) ∗ (c ◦ a), then ◦ is said to be distributive w.r.t the operation ∗.
Example: N is the set of natural numbers.
(i) +, · are binary operations in N, since for a, b ∈ N, a + b ∈ N and a · b ∈ N. In
other words N is said to be closed w.r.t the operations + and ·.
(ii) +, · are commutative in N, since for a, b ∈ N, a + b = b + a and a · b = b · a.
(iii) +, · are associative in N, since for a, b, c ∈ N,
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c.
(iv) is distributive w.r.t the operation + in N, since for a, b, c ∈ N, a · (b + c) = a · b + a ·
c and (b + c) · a = b · a + c · a.
(v) The operations subtraction (−) and division (÷) are not binary operations in N, since
3
for 3, 5 ∈ N does not imply 3 − 5 ∈ N and 5 ∈ N.
Example: A is the set of even integers.
(i) +, · are binary operations in A, since for a, b ∈ A, a + b ∈ A and a · b ∈ A.
(i) +, · are commutative in A, since for a, b ∈ A, a + b = b + a and a · b = b · a.
(ii) +, · are associative in A, since for a, b, c ∈ A,
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c.
(iv) · is distributive w.r.t the operation + in A, since for a, b, c ∈ A, a ·
(b + c) = a · b + a · c and (b + c) · a = b · a + c · a.

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Example: Let S be a non-empty set and ◦ be an operation on S defined by a ◦ b = a for a, b ∈ S.
Determine whether ◦ is commutative and associative in S.
Solution: Since a ◦ b = a for a, b ∈ S and b ◦ a = b for a, b ∈ S.
⇒ a ◦ b ≠ b ◦ a.
∴ ◦ is not commutative in S.
Since (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ c = a
a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a ◦ b = a for a, b, c ∈ S.
∴ ◦ is associative in S.
Example: ◦ is operation defined on Z such that a ◦ b = a + b − ab for a, b ∈ Z. Is the operation ◦ a
binary operation in Z? If so, is it associative and commutative in Z?
Solution: If a, b ∈ Z, we have a + b ∈ Z, ab ∈ Z and a + b − ab ∈ Z.
⇒ a ◦ b = a + b − ab ∈ Z.
∴ ◦ is a binary operation in Z.
⇒ a ◦ b = b ◦ a.
∴ ◦ is commutative in Z.
Now
(a ◦ b) ◦ c = (a ◦ b) + c − (a ◦ b)c
= a + b − ab + c − (a + b − ab)c
=a + b − ab + c − ac − bc + abc
and
a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a + (b ◦ c) − a(b ◦ c)
=a + b + c − bc − a(b + c − bc)
=a + b + c − bc − ab − ac + abc
=a + b − ab + c − ac − bc + abc
⇒ (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c). ∴
◦ is associative in Z.
′ ′
Example: Fill in blanks in the following composition table so that ◦ is associative in S = {a,b,c,d}.
◦ a b c d
a a b c d
b b a c d
c c d c d
d
Solution: d ◦ a = (c ◦ b) ◦ a[∵ c ◦ b = d]
=c ◦ (b ◦ a) [∵ ◦ is associative]
=c ◦ b
=d
d ◦ b = (c ◦ b) ◦ b = c ◦ (b ◦ b) = c ◦ a = c.
d ◦ c = (c ◦ b) ◦ c = c ◦ (b ◦ c) = c ◦ c = c.

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d ◦ d = (c ◦ b) ◦ (c ◦ b)
=c ◦ (b ◦ c) ◦ b
=c ◦ c ◦ b
=c ◦ (c ◦ b)
=c ◦ d
=d
Hence, the required composition table is

◦ a b c d
a a b c d
b b a c d
c c d c d
d d c c d

Example: Let P (S) be the power set of a non-empty set S. Let ∩ be an operation in P (S). Prove
that associative law and commutative law are true for the operation in P (S).

Solution: P(S)= Set of all possible subsets of S.

Let A,B ∈ P(S).
Since A ⊆ S, B ⊆ S ⇒ A ∩ B ⊆ S ⇒ A ∩ B ∈ P(S).
∴ ∩ is a binary operation in P (S).
Also A ∩ B = B ∩ A
∴ ∩ is commutative in P (S).
Again A ∩ B, B ∩ C, (A ∩ B) ∩ C and A ∩ (B ∩ C) are subsets of S.

∴ (A ∩ B) ∩ C, A ∩ (B ∩ C) ∈ P (S).
Since (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
∴ ∩ is associative in P (S).
Algebraic Structures
Definition: A non-empty set G equipped with one or more binary operations is called an
algebraic structure or an algebraic system.
If ◦ is a binary operation on G, then the algebraic structure is written as (G, ◦).
Example: (N, +), (Q, −), (R, +) are algebraic structures.
Semi Group
Definition: An algebraic structure (S, ◦) is called a semi group if the binary oper-ation ◦ is
associative in S.
That is, (S, ◦) is said to be a semi group if
(i) a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ◦ b ∈ S for all a, b ∈ S
(ii) (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c) for all a, b, c ∈ S.
Example:
1. (N, +) is a semi group. For a, b ∈ N ⇒ a + b ∈ N and a, b, c ∈ N ⇒ (a + b) + c =a+ (b + c).
2. (Q, −) is not a semi group. For 5,3/2 , 1 ∈ Q does not imply (5 – 3/2 ) −1 = 5 −(3/2 −1).
3. (R, +) is a semi group. For a, b ∈ R ⇒ a + b ∈ R and a, b, c ∈ R ⇒ (a + b) + c = a+ (b + c).

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Example: The operation ◦ is defined by a ◦ b = a for all a, b ∈ S. Show that (S, ◦) is a semi group.
Solution: Let a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ◦ b = a ∈ S.
∴ ◦ is a binary operation in S. Let a, b, c ∈ S, a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a ◦ b = a
(a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ c = a.
⇒ ◦ is associative in S.
∴ (S, ◦) is a semi group.
Example: The operation ◦ is defined by a ◦ b = a + b − ab for all a, b ∈ Z. Show that (Z, ◦) is a
semi group.
Solution: Let a, b ∈ Z ⇒ a ◦ b = a + b − ab ∈ Z.
∴ ◦ is a binary operation in Z.
Let a, b, c ∈ Z.
(a ◦ b) ◦ c = (a + b − ab) ◦ c
=a + b − ab + c − (a + b − ab)c
=a + b + c − ab − bc − ac + abc

a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a ◦ (b + c − bc)
=a + (b + c − bc) − a(b + c − bc)
=a + b + c − bc − ab − ac +
abc ⇒ (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c).
⇒ ◦ is associative in Z. ∴ (Z, ◦) is semi group.

Example: (P (S), ∩) is a semi group, where P (S) is the power set of a non-empty set S.
Solution: P (S)= Set of all possible subsets of S.
Let A, B ∈ P (S).
Since A ⊆ S, B ⊆ S ⇒ A ∩ B ⊆ S ⇒ A ∩ B ∈ P (S).
∴ ∩ is a binary operation in P (S). Let A, B, C ∈ P (S).
∴ (A ∩ B) ∩ C, A ∩ (B ∩ C) ∈ P (S). Since (A ∩ B) ∩ C
= A ∩ (B ∩ C)
∴ ∩ is associative in P (S).
Hence (P (S), ∩) is a semi group.
Example: (P (S), ∪) is a semi group, where P (S) is the power set of a non-empty set S.
Solution: P (S)= Set of all possible subsets of S.
Let A, B ∈ P (S).
Since A ⊆ S, B ⊆ S ⇒ A ∪ B ⊆ S ⇒ A ∪ B ∈ P (S).
∴ ∪ is a binary operation in P (S). Let A, B, C ∈ P (S).
∴ (A ∪ B) ∪ C, A ∪ (B ∪ C) ∈ P (S). Since (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
∴ ∪ is associative in P (S).
Hence (P (S), ∪) is a semi group.

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Example: Q is the set of rational numbers, ◦ is a binary operation defined on Q such that a ◦ b = a
− b + ab for a, b ∈ Q. Then (Q, ◦) is not a semi group.
Solution: For a, b, c ∈ Q,
(a ◦ b) ◦ c = (a ◦ b) − c + (a ◦ b)c
=a − b + ab − c + (a − b + ab)c
=a − b + ab − c + ac − bc + abc
a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a − (b ◦ c) + a(b ◦ c)
=a − (b − c + bc) + a(b − cbc)
=a − b + c − bc + ab − ac + abc.
Therefore, (a ◦ b) ◦ c ≠ a ◦ (b ◦ c).
Example: Let (A, ∗) be a semi group. Show that for a, b, c in A if a ∗ c = c ∗ a and b ∗ c = c ∗ b,
then (a ∗ b) ∗ c = c ∗ (a ∗ b).
Solution: Given (A, ∗) be a semi group, a ∗ c = c ∗ a and b ∗ c = c ∗ b.
Consider
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) [∵ A is seme group]
=a ∗ (c ∗ b) [∵ b ∗ c = c ∗ b]
=(a ∗ c) ∗ b [∵ A is seme group]
=(c ∗ a) ∗ b [∵ a ∗ c = c ∗ a]
=c ∗ (a ∗ b) [∵ A is seme group].
Homomorphism of Semi-Groups
Definition: Let (S, ∗) and (T, ◦) be any two semi-groups. A mapping f : S → T such that for any
two elements a, b ∈ S, f(a ∗ b) = f(a) ◦ f(b) is called a semi-group homomorphism.
Definition: A homomorphism of a semi-group into itself is called a semi-group en-domorphism.
Example: Let (S1, ∗1), (S2, ∗2) and (S3, ∗3) be semigroups and f : S1 → S2 and g : S2 → S3 be
homomorphisms. Prove that the mapping of g ◦ f : S1 → S3 is a semigroup homomorphism.
Solution: Given that (S1, ∗1), (S2, ∗2) and (S3, ∗3) are three semigroups and f : S1 →
S2 and g : S2 → S3 be homomorphisms.
Let a, b be two elements of S1.
(g ◦ f)(a ∗1 b) = g[f(a ∗1 b)]
= g[f(a) ∗2 f(b)] (∵ f is a homomorphism)
= g(f(a)) ∗3 g(f(b)) (∵ g is a homomorphism)
=(g ◦ f)(a) ∗3 (g ◦ f)(b)
∴ g ◦ f is a homomorphism.
Identity Element: Let S be a non-empty set and ◦ be a binary operation on S. If there exists an
element e ∈ S such that a ◦ e = e ◦ a = a, for a ∈ S, then e is called an identity element of S.

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Example:
(i) In the algebraic system (Z, +), the number 0 is an identity element.
(ii) In the algebraic system (R, ·), the number 1 is an identity element.
Note: The identity element of an algebraic system is unique.

Monoid
Definition: A semi group (S, ◦) with an identity element with respect to the binary operation ◦
is known as a monoid. i.e., (S, ◦) is a monoid if S is a non-empty set and ◦ is a binary
operation in S such that ◦ is associative and there exists an identity element w.r.t ◦.
Example:
1. (Z, +) is a monoid and the identity is 0.
2. (Z, ·) is a monid and the identity is 1.

Monoid Homomorphism
Definition: Let (M, ∗) and (T, ◦) be any two monoids, em and et denote the identity elements
of (M, ∗) and (T, ◦) respectively. A mapping f : M → T such that for any two elements a, b ∈
M,
f(a ∗ b) = f(a) ◦ f(b) and
f(em) = et
is called a monoid homomorphism.

Monoid homomorphism presents the associativity and identity. It also preserves

−1 −1
commutative. If a ∈ M is invertible and a ∈ M is the inverse of a in M, then f(a ) is the
−1 −1
inverse of f(a), i.e., f(a ) = [f(a)] .

Sub Semi group

Let (S, ∗) be a semi group and T be a subset of S. Then (T, ∗) is called a sub semi group of (S,
∗) whenever T is closed under ∗. i.e., a ∗ b ∈ T, for all a, b ∈ T .

Sub Monoid
Let (S,∗) be a monoid with e is the identity element and T be a non-empty subset of S. Then
(T, ∗) is the sub monoid of (S, ∗) if e ∈ T and a ∗ b ∈ T , whenever a, b ∈ T . Example:
1. Under the usual addition, the semi group formed by positive integers is a sub semi group of
all integers.
2. Under the usual addition, the set of all rational numbers forms a monoid. We denote it (Q,
+). The monoid (Z, +) is a submonid of (Q, +).
3. Under the usual multiplication, the set E of all even integers forms a semi group.
This semi group is sub semi group of (Z, ·). But it is not a submonoid of (Z, ·), because 1≠ E.

Example: Show that the intersection of two submonoids of a monoid is a monoid.

Solution: Let S be a monoid with e as the identity, and S1 and S2 be two submonoids of S.
Since S1 and S2 are submonoids, these are monoids. Therefore e ∈ S1 and e ∈ S2.

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Since S1 ∩S2 is a subset of S, the associative law holds in S1 ∩S2, because it holds in S.
Accordingly S1 ∩ S2 forms a monoid with e as the identity.

Invertible Element: Let (S,◦) be an algebraic structure with the identity element e in S w.r.t
◦. An element a ∈ S is said to be invertible if there exists an element x∈ S such that a ◦ x = x ◦
a = e.
Note: The inverse of an invertible element is unique.
From the composition table, one can conclude
1. Closure Property: If all entries in the table are elements of S, then S closed under ◦.
2. Commutative Law: If every row of the table coincides with the corresponding column,
then ◦ is commutative on S.
3. Identity Element: If the row headed by an element a of S coincides with the top row, then a
is called the identity element.
4. Invertible Element: If the identity element e is placed in the table at the intersection of the
′ ′ ′ ′ −1 −1
row headed by a and the column headed by b , then b = a and a = b.
2
Example: A = {1, ω, ω }.
2
· 1 ω ω

1 1 ω ω2
2
ω ω ω 1

ω2 ω2 1 ω
From the table we conclude that
1. Closure Property: Since all entries in the table are elements of A. So, closure property is
satisfied.
st nd rd st nd rd
2. Commutative Law: Since 1 , 2 and 3 rows coincides with 1 , 2 and 3 columns
respectively. So multiplication is commutative on A.
3. Identity Element: Since row headed by 1 is same as the initial row, so 1 is the identity
element.
−1 −1 2 2 −1
4. Inverses: Clearly 1 = 1, ω = ω , (ω ) = ω.

Groups
Definition: If G is a non-empty set and ◦ is a binary operation defined on G such that the
following three laws are satisfied then (G, ◦) is a group.
Associative Law: For a, b, c ∈ G, (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c)
Identity Law: There exists e ∈ G such that a ◦ e = a = e ◦ a for every a ∈ G, e is called an
identity element in G.
Inverse Law: For each a ∈ G, there exists an element b ∈ G such that a◦b = b◦a = e, b is called
an inverse of a.
Example: The set Z of integers is a group w.r.t. usual addition.
(i). For a, b ∈ Z ⇒ a + b ∈ Z
(ii). For a, b, c ∈ Z, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
(iii). 0 ∈ Z such that 0 + a = a + 0 = a for each a ∈ G

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 ∴ 0 is the identity element in Z.
(iv). For a ∈ Z, there exists −a ∈ Z such that a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0.
∴ −a is the inverse of a. (Z, +) is a
group.
Example: Give an example of a monoid which is not a group.
Solution: The set N of natural numbers w.r.t usual multiplication is not a group.
(i). For a, b ∈ N ⇒ a · b.
(ii). For a, b, c ∈ N, (a · b) · c = a · (b · c).
(iii). 1 ∈ N such that 1 · a = a · 1 = a, for all a ∈ N.
∴ (N, ·) is a monoid.
(iv). There is no n ∈ N such that a · n = n · a = 1 for a ∈ N.
∴ Inverse law is not true.
∴ The algebraic structure (N, ·) is not a group.
Example: (R, +) is a group, where R denote the set of real numbers.
Abelian Group (or Commutative Group): Let (G, ∗) be a group. If ∗ is com-mutative that is
a ∗ b = b ∗ a for all a, b ∈ G then (G, ∗) is called an Abelian group.
Example: (Z, +) is an Abelian group.
2 2
Example: Prove that G = {1, ω, ω } is a group with respect to multiplication where 1, ω, ω
are cube roots of unity.
Solution: We construct the composition table as follows:

2
· 1 ω ω
2
1 1 ω ω
2 3
ω ω ω ω =1
2 2 3 4
ω ω ω =1 ω =ω
3
The algebraic system is (G, ·) where ω = 1 and multiplication · is the binary opera-tion on G.
From the composition table; it is clear that (G, ·) is closed with respect to the oper-ation
multiplication and the operation · is associative.
1 is the identity element in G such that 1 · a = a = a · 1, ∀ a ∈ G.
Each element of G is invertible
1. 1· 1 = 1 ⇒ 1 is its own inverse.
2 3 2 2
2. ω · ω = ω = 1 ⇒ ω is the inverse of ω and ω is the inverse of ω in G.
∴ (G, ·) is a group and a · b = b · a, ∀a, b ∈ G, that is commutative law holds in
G with respect to multiplication.
∴ (G, ·) is an abelian group.

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Example: Show that the set G = {1, −1, i, −i} where i =  1 is an abelian group with respect
to multiplication as a binary operation. Solution: Let us construct the composition table:

· 1 −1 i −i
1 1 −1 i −i
-1 −1 1 −i i
i i −i −1 1
−i −i i 1 -1

From the above composition, it is clear that the algebraic structure (G, ·) is closed and
satisfies the following axioms:
Associativity: For any three elements a, b, c ∈ G, (a · b) · c = a · (b · c).
Since
1 · (−1 · i) = 1 · −i = −i
(1 · −1) · i = −1 · i = −i
⇒ 1 · (−1 · i) = (1 · −1) · i
Similarly with any other three elements of G the properties holds.
∴ Associative law holds in (G, ·).
Existence of identity: 1 is the identity element in (G, ·) such that 1 · a = a = a · 1, ∀ a ∈ G.
Existence of inverse: 1 · 1 = 1 = 1 · 1 ⇒ 1 is inverse of 1.
(−1) · (−1) = 1 = (−1) · (−1) ⇒ −1 is the inverse of (−1)
i · (−i) = 1 = −i · i ⇒ −i is the inverse of i in G.
−i · i = 1 = i · (−i) ⇒ i is the inverse of −i in G.
Hence inverse of every element in G exists.
Thus all the axioms of a group are satisfied.
Commutativity: a · b = b · a, ∀a, b ∈ G hold in G.
1 · 1 = 1 = 1 · 1; − 1 · 1 = −1 = 1 · −1
i · 1 = i = 1 · i; i · −i = −i · i = 1 etc.
Commutative law is satisfied.
Hence (G, ·) is an abelian group.
Example: Prove that the set Z of all integers with binary operation ∗ defined by a ∗ b = a + b
+ 1, ∀ a, b ∈ Z is an abelian group. Solution:
Closure: Let a, b ∈ Z. Since a + b ∈ Z and a + b + 1 ∈ Z.
∴ Z is closed under ∗.
Associativity: Let a, b, c ∈ Z.
Consider (a ∗ b) ∗ c = (a + b + 1) ∗ c
=a + b + 1 + c + 1
=a + b + c + 2
also

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 a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ (b + c + 1)
=a + b + c + 1 + 1
=a + b + c + 2
Hence (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) for a, b, c ∈ Z.
Existence of Identity: Let a ∈ Z. Let e ∈ Z such that e ∗ a = a ∗ e = a, i.e., a + e + 1
=a
⇒ e = −1
e = −1 is the identity element in Z.
Existence of Inverse: Let a ∈ Z. Let b ∈ Z such that a ∗ b = e.
⇒ a + b + 1 = −1
b = −2 − a
∴ For every a ∈ Z, there exits −2−a ∈ Z such that a∗(−2−a) = (−2−a)∗a = −1.
∴ (Z, ∗) is an abelian group.
Example: Show that the set Q+ of all positive rational numbers forms an abelian group under
the composition defined by ◦ such that a ◦ b = ab/3 for a, b ∈ Q+. Solution: Q+ of the set of all
positive rational numbers and for a, b ∈ Q+, we have the operation ◦ such that a ◦ b = ab/3.
Associativity: a, b, c ∈ Q+⇒ (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c).
Since ab∈ Q+ and ab/3∈ Q+.
Associativity: a, b, c ∈ Q+ ⇒ (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c).
Since (a ◦ b) ◦ c = ( ab/3 ) ◦ c =[ab/3 .c]/3 = a/3( bc/3 ) = a/3 (b ◦ c) = a ◦ (b ◦ c).
Existence of Identity: Let a ∈ Q+. Let e ∈ Q+ such that e ◦ a = a.
i.e., ea/3 = a
⇒ ea − 3a = 0 ⇒ (e − 3)a = 0
⇒e−3=0 (∵ a ≠ 0)
⇒e=3
∴ e = 3 is the identity element in Q+.
Existence of Inverse: Let a ∈ Q+. Let b ∈ Q+ such that a ◦ b = e.
⇒ab/3 = 3
b = 9/a (∵ a ≠ 0)
∴ For every a ∈ Q+, there exists 9/a ∈ Q+ such that a ◦ 9/a = 9/a ◦ a = 3.
Commutativity: Let a, b ∈ Q+ ⇒ a ◦ b = b ◦ a.
Since a ◦ b = ab/3=ba/3 = b ◦ a.
(Q+, ◦) is an abelian group.

Exercises: 1. Prove that the set G of rational numbers other than 1 with operation ⊕ such that
a ⊕ b = a + b − ab for a, b ∈ G is abelian group.

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2. Consider the algebraic system (G, ∗), where G is the set of all non-zero real numbers and ∗
ab
is a binary operation defined by: a ∗ b = 4 , ∀a, b ∈ G. Show that (G, ∗) is an
Addition modulo m
We shall now define a composite known as ―addition modulo m‖ where m is fixed integer.
If a and b are any two integers, and r is the least non-negative reminder obtained by dividing
the ordinary sum of a and b by m, then the addition modulo m of a and b is r symbolically
a +m b = r, 0 ≤ r < m.
Example: 20 +6 5 = 1, since 20 + 5 = 25 = 4(6) + 1, i.e., 1 is the remainder when 20+5 is
divisible by 6.
Example: −15 +5 3 = 3, since −15 + 3 = −12 = 3(−5) + 3.
Multiplication modulo p
If a and b are any two integers, and r is the least non-negative reminder obtained by dividing
the ordinary product of a and b by p, then the Multiplication modulo p of a and b is r
symbolically
a ×p b = r, 0 ≤ r < p.

Example: Show that the set G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} is an abelian group with respect to addition
modulo 5.
Solution: We form the composition table as follows:
+5 0 1 2 3 4
0 0 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4 0
2 2 3 4 0 1
3 3 4 0 1 2
4 4 0 1 2 3

Since all the entries in the composition table are elements of G, the set G is closed with
respect to addition modulo 5.
Associativity: For any three elements a, b, c ∈ G, (a +5 b) +5 c and a +5 (b +5 c) leave the
same remainder when divided by 5.
i.e., (a +5 b) +5 c = a +5 (b +5 c)
(1 +5 3) +5 4 = 3 = 1 +5 (3 +5 4) etc.
Existence of Identity: Clearly 0 ∈ G is the identity element, since we have
0 +5 9 = 4 = 9 +5 0,∀ a ∈ G.
Existence of Inverse: Each element in G is invertible with respect to addition modulo 5.
0 is its own inverse; 4 is the inverse of 1 and 1 is the inverse of 4.
2 is the inverse of 3 and 3 is the inverse of 2 with respect to addition modulo 5 in G.
Commutativity: From the composition table it is clear that a+5 b = b+5 a, ∀ a, b ∈ G.
Hence (G, +5) is an abelian group.

91
Example: Show that the set G= {1, 2, 3, 4} is an abelian with respect to multipli-cation
modulo 5.
Solution: The composition table for multiplication modulo 5 is
×
5 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 1 3
3 3 1 4 2
4 4 3 2 1
From the above table, it is clear that G is closed with respect to the operation ×5 and the
binary composition ×5 is associative; 1 is the identity element.
Each element in G has a inverse.
1 is its own inverse
2 is the inverse of 3
3 is the inverse of 2
4 is the inverse of 4, with respect to the binary operation ×5.
Commutative law holds good in (G, ×5).
Therefore (G, ×5) is an abelian group.
Example: Consider the group, G = {1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17} under multiplication modulo 18.
−1 −1 −1
Construct the multiplication table of G and find the values of: 5 , 7 and 17 .
Example: If G is the set of even integers, i.e., G = {· · · , −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, · · · } then prove that
G is an abelian group with usual addition as the operation. Solution: Let a, b, c ∈ G.
∴ We can take a = 2x, b = 2y, c = 2z, where x, y, z ∈ Z.
Closure: a, b ∈ G ⇒ a + b ∈ G.
Since a + b = 2x + 2y = 2(x + y) ∈ G.
Associativity: a, b, c ∈ G ⇒ a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
Since
a + (b + c) = 2x + (2y + 2z)
=2[x + (y + z)]
=2[(x + y) + z]
=(2x + 2y) + 2z
=(a + b) + c
Existence of Identity: a ∈ G, there exists 0 ∈ G such that a + 0 = 0 + a = a. Since a + 0 =
2x + 0 = 2x = a and 0 + a = 0 + 2x = 2x = a
∴ 0 is the identity in G.
Existence of Inverse: a ∈ G, there exists −a ∈ G such that a+(−a) = (−a)+a = 0.
Since a + (−a) = 2x + (−2x) = 0 and (−a) + a = (−2x) + 2x = 0.
∴ (G, +) is a group.
Commutativity: a, b ∈ G ⇒ a + b = b + a.
Since a + b = 2x + 2y = 2(x + y) = 2(y + x) = 2y + 2x = b + a.
∴ (G, +) is an abelian group.

92
 a b
Example: Show that set G = {x| x = 2 3 for a, b ∈ Z} is a group under multipli-cation.
p q r s l m
Solution: Let x, y, z ∈ G. We can take x = 2 3 , y = 2 3 , z = 2 3 , where p, q, r, s, l, m ∈ Z.
We know that (i). p + r, q + s ∈ Z
(ii). (p + r) + l = p + (r + l), (q + s) + m = q + (s + m).
Closure: x, y ∈ G ⇒ x · y ∈ G.
p q r s p+r q+s
Since x · y = (2 3 )(2 3 ) = 2 3 ∈ G. Associativity: x, y, z ∈ G ⇒ (x · y) · z = x · (y · z)
p q r s l m
Since (x · y) · z = (2 3 2 3 )(2 3 )

=2(p+r)+l3(q+s)+m

=2p+(r+l)3q+(s+m)
p q r s l m
=(2 3 )(2 3 2 3 )
=x · (y · z)
0 0
Existence of Identity: Let x ∈ G. We know that e = 2 3 ∈ G, since 0 ∈ Z.
p q 0 0 p+0 q+0 p q 0 0 p q p q
∴x·e=2 3 2 3 =2 3 = 2 3 = x and e · x = 2 3 2 3 = 2 3 = x. ∴ e ∈ G such
that x · e = e · x = x
0 0
∴ e = 2 3 is the identity element in G.
Existence of Inverse: Let x ∈ G.
−p −q
Now y = 2 3 ∈ G exists, since −p, −q ∈ Z such that
p q −p −q 0 0 −p −q p q 0 0
x·y=2 3 2 3 = 2 3 = e and y · x = 2 3 2 3 = 2 3 = e.
p q −p −q
∴ For every x = 2 3 ∈ G there exists y = 2 3 ∈ G such that x ·y = y ·x = e. ∴ (G, ·) is a
group.

Example: Show that the sets of all ordered pairs (a, b) of real numbers for which a ≠ 0 w.r.t
the operation ∗ defined by (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ac, bc + d) is a group. Is the commutative?
Solution: Let G = {(a, b)| a, b ∈ R and a ≠ 0}. Define a binary operation ∗ on G by (a, b) ∗ (c,
d) = (ac, bc + d), for all (a, b), (c, d) ∈ G. Now we show that (G, ∗) is a group.
Closure: (a, b), (c, d) ∈ G ⇒ (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ac, bc + d) ∈ G.
Since a ≠ 0, c ≠ 0 ⇒ ac ≠ 0.
Associativity: (a, b), (c, d), (e, f) ∈ G ⇒ {(a, b) ∗ (c, d)} ∗ (e, f) = (a, b) ∗ {(c, d) ∗(e, f)}.
Since {(a, b) ∗ (c, d)} ∗ (e, f) = (ac, bc + d) ∗ (e, f)
= (ace, (bc + d)e + f)
= (ace, bce + de + f)
Also (a, b) ∗ {(c, d) ∗ (e, f)} = (a, b) ∗ (ce, de + f)
= (a(ce), b(ce) + de + f)
= (ace, bce + de + f)
Existence of Identity: Let (a, b)∈G. Let (x, y)∈ G such that (x, y)∗(a, b)=(a,b)∗(x, y)=(a, b)
⇒ (xa, ya + b) = (a, b)

93
 ⇒ xa = a, ya + b = b

⇒ x = 1, (∵ a ≠ 0) and ya = 0 ⇒ x = 1 and y = 0 (∵ a ≠ 0)
⇒ (1, 0) ∈ G such that (a, b) ∗ (1, 0) = (a, b).
∴ (1, 0) is the identity in G.
Existence of Inverse: Let (a, b) ∈ G. Let (x, y) ∈ G such that (x, y) ∗ (a, b) = (1, 0)
⇒ (xa, ya + b) = (1, 0)
1 − b
⇒ xa = 1, ya + b = 0 ⇒ x = a , y = a
∴ The inverse of (a, b) exits and it is (1/a,-b/a ).
Commutativity: Let (a, b), (c, d) ∈ G ⇒ (a, b) ∗ (c, d) ≠ (c, d) ∗ (a, b)
Since (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ac, bc + d) and (c, d) ∗ (a, b) = (ca, da + b).
∴ G is a group but not commutative group w.r.t ∗.
−1 −1 −1
Example: If (G, ∗) is a group then (a ∗ b) =b ∗a for all a, b ∈ G.
Solution: Let a, b ∈ G and e be the identity element in G.
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
Let a ∈ G ⇒ a ∈ G such that a∗a =a ∗a=e and b∈ G ⇒ b ∈ G such that b∗b =b ∗b=
e.
−1
Now a, b ∈ G ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ G and (a ∗ b) ∈ G.
Consider
−1 −1 −1 −1
(a ∗ b) ∗ (b ∗ a ) = a ∗ [b ∗ (b ∗ a )] (by associativity law)
−1 −1
=a ∗ [(b ∗ b ) ∗ a ]
−1 −1
= a ∗ (e ∗ a ) (b ∗ b = e)
−1
=a∗a (e is the identity)
=e
and
−1 −1 −1 −1
(b ∗ a ) ∗ (a ∗ b) = b ∗ [a ∗ (a ∗ b)]
−1 −1
=b ∗ [(a ∗ a) ∗ b]
−1
=b ∗ [e ∗ b]
−1
=b ∗b
=e
−1 −1 −1 −1
⇒ (a ∗ b) ∗ (b ∗ a ) = (b ∗ a ) ∗ (a ∗ b) = e
−1 −1 −1
(a ∗ b) =b ∗a for all a, b ∈ G.
Note:
−1 −1 −1
1. (b a ) = ab
−1 −1 −1 −1
2. (abc) = c b a
3. If (G, +) is a group, then −(a + b) = (−b) + (−a)
4. −(a + b + c) = (−c) + (−b) + (−a).

94
Theorem: Cancelation laws hold good in G, i.e., for all a, b, c ∈ G a ∗ b = a ∗ c ⇒ b = c (left
cancelation law) b ∗ a = c ∗ a ⇒ b = c (right cancelation law).
Proof: G is a group. Let e be the identity element in G.
−1 −1 −1
a∈G⇒a ∈ G such that a ∗ a =a ∗ a = e.
Consider
a∗b=a∗c
−1 −1
⇒a ∗ (a ∗ b) = a (a ∗ c)
−1 −1
⇒ (a ∗ a) ∗ b = (a ∗ a) ∗ c (by associative law)
−1
⇒ e ∗ b = e ∗ c (a is the inverse of a in G)
⇒ b = c (e is the identity element in G)
and
b∗a=c∗a
−1 −1
⇒ (b ∗ a)a = (c ∗ a) ∗ a
−1 −1
⇒ b ∗ (a ∗ a ) = c ∗ (a ∗ a ) (by associative law)
−1
⇒ b ∗ e = c ∗ e (∵ a ∗ a = e)
⇒ b = c (e is the identity element in G)
Note:
1. If G is an additive group, a + b = a + c ⇒ b = c and b + a = c + a ⇒ b = c.
2. In a semi group cancelation laws may not hold. Let S be the set of all 2 × 2 matrices over
integers and let matrix multiplication be the binary operation defined on S. Then S is a semi
group of the above operation.
1 0  0 0  0 0
If A=  ; B=   ;C=   , then A, B, C ∈ S and AB = AC, we observe that left
 0 0 0 1 1 0
cancellation law is not true in the semi group.
3. (N, +) is a semi group. For a, b, c ∈ N
a + b = a + c ⇒ b + c and b + a = c + a ⇒ b = c.
But (N, +) is not a group.
In a semigroup even if cancellation laws holds, then semigroup is not a group.

Example: If every element of a group G is its own inverse, show that G is an abelian group.
−1 −1
Solution: Let a, b ∈ G. By hypothesis a = a, b = b.
−1
Then ab ∈ G and hence (ab) = ab.
Now
−1
(ab) = ab
−1 −1
⇒b a = ab
⇒ ba = ab
∴ G is an abelian group.

95
Note: The converse of the above not true.
For example, (R, +), where R is the set of real numbers, is abelian group, but no element
except 0 is its own inverse.
2
Example: Prove that if a = a, then a = e, a being an element of a group G.
2
Solution: Let a be an element of a group G such that a = a. To prove that a = e.
2
a = a ⇒ aa = a
−1 −1 −1
⇒ (aa)a = aa ⇒ a(aa ) = e
−1
⇒ ae = e [∵ aa = e] ⇒ a = e [∵ ae = a]
2
Example: In a group G having more than one element, if x = x, for every x ∈ G.
Prove that G is abelian.
2 2 2
Solution: Let a, b ∈ G. Under the given hypothesis, we have a = a, b = b, (ab) = ab.
2 2 2
∴ a(ab)b = (aa)(bb) = a b = ab = (ab) = (ab)(ab) = a(ba)b
⇒ ab = ba (Using cancelation laws)
∴ G is abelian.
2 2 2
Example: Show that in a group G, for a, b ∈ G, (ab) = a b ⇔ G is abelian. (May. 2012)
2 2 2
Solution: Let a, b ∈ G, and (ab) = a b . To prove that G is abelian.
Then
2 2 2
(ab) = a b
⇒ (ab)(ab) = (aa)(bb)
⇒ a(ba)b = a(ab)b (by Associative law) ⇒ ba = ab, (by cancellation
laws)
⇒ G is abelian.
2 2 2
Conversely, let G be abelian. To prove that (ab) = a b .
2 2 2
Then (ab) = (ab)(ab) = a(ba)b = a(ab)b = (aa)(bb) = a b .
***Example: If a, b are any two elements of a group (G, ·), which commute. Show that
−1
1. a and b commute
−1
2. b and a commute
−1 −1
3. a and b commute.
Solution: (G, ·) is a group and such that ab = ba.
−1 −1
1. ab = ba ⇒ a (ab) = a (ba)
−1 −1
⇒ (a a)b = a (ba)
−1
⇒ eb = (a b)a
−1
⇒ b = (a b)a
−1 −1 −1
⇒ ba = [(a b)a]a
−1 −1
=(a b)(aa )
−1
=(a b)e
−1
=a b

96
 −1
⇒a and b commute.
−1 −1
1 ab = ba ⇒ (ab)b = (ba)b
−1
⇒ a(bb ) =
−1
(ba)b ⇒
−1
ae = b(ab )
−1
⇒ a = b(ab )
−1 −1 −1
⇒ b a = b [b(ab )]
−1 −1
=(b b)(ab )]
−1
=e(ab )
−1
=ab
−1
⇒b and a commute.
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
2 ab = ba ⇒ (ab) = (ba) b a =a b
−1 −1
⇒a and b are commute.
Order of an Element
Definition: Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G, then the least positive integer n if it exists such
n
that a = e is called the order of a ∈ G.
The order of an element a ∈ G is be denoted by O(a).
Example: G = {1, −1, i, −i} is a group with respect to multiplication. 1 is the identity in G.
1 2 3
1 = 1 = 1 = · · · = 1 ⇒ O(1) = 1.
2 4 6
(−1) = (−1) = (−1) = · · · = 1 ⇒ O(−1) = 2.
4 8 12
i =i =i = · · · = 1 ⇒ O(i) = 4.
4 8
(−i) = (−i) = · · · = 1 ⇒ O(−i) = 4.
5
Example: In a group G, a is an element of order 30. Find order of a .
Solution: Given O(a) = 30
30 5
⇒a = e, e is the identity element of G. Let O(a ) = n
5 n
⇒ (a ) = e
5n
⇒a = e, where n is the least positive integer. Hence 30 is divisor of 5n.
∴ n = 6.
5
Hence O(a ) = 6

Sub Groups
Definition: Let (G, ∗) be a group and H be a non-empty subset of G. If (H, ∗) is itself is a
group, then (H, ∗) is called sub-group of (G, ∗).
Examples:
1. (Z, +) is a subgroup of (Q, +).

97
 2. The additive group of even integers is a subgroup of the additive group of all
integers.
3. (N, +) is not a subgroup of the group (Z, +), since identity does not exist in N under
+.
Example: Let G = {1, −1, i, −i} and H = {1, −1}.
Here G and H are groups with respect to the binary operation multiplication and H is a subset
of G. Therefore (H, ·) is a subgroup of (G, ·).
Example: Let H = {0, 2, 4} ⊆ Z6. Check that (H, +6) is a subgroup of (Z6, +6).
Solution: Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
+6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
∴ (Z6, +6) is a group.

H= {0, 2, 4}.

+6 0 2 4
0 0 2 4
2 2 4 0
4 4 0 2

The following conditions are to be satisfied in order to prove that it is a subgroup.

(i). Closure: Let a, b ∈ H ⇒ a +6 b ∈ H.
0, 2 ∈ H ⇒ 0 +6 2 = 2 ∈ H.
(ii). Identity Element: The row headed by 0 is exactly same as the initial row.
∴ 0 is the identity element.
−1 −1 −1
(iii). Inverse: 0 = 0, 2 = 4, 4 = 2.
Inverse exist for each element of (H, +6).
∴ (H, +6) is a subgroup of (Z6, +6).
Theorem: If (G, ∗) is a group and H ⊆ G, then (H, ∗) is a subgroup of (G, ∗) if and only if
(i) a, b ∈ H ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ H;
−1
(ii) a ∈ H ⇒ a ∈ H.
Proof: The condition is necessary
Let (H, ∗) be a subgroup of (G, ∗).
To prove that conditions (i) and (ii) are satisfied.

98
Since (H, ∗) is a group, by closure property we have a, b ∈ H ⇒ ab ∈ H.
−1
Also, by inverse property a ∈ H ⇒ a ∈ H.

The condition is sufficient:

Let (i) and (ii) be true. To prove that (H, ∗) is a subgroup of (G, ∗).
We are required to prove is: ∗ is associative in H and identity e ∈ H.
That ∗ is associative in H follows from the fact that ∗ is associative in G. Since H is nonempty,
−1
let a∈H⇒a ∈ H (by (ii))
−1 −1
∴ a ∈ H, a ∈ H ⇒ aa ∈ H (by (i))
⇒ e ∈ H (∵ aa−1 ∈ H ⇒ aa−1 ∈ G ⇒ aa−1 = e, where e is the identity in G.)
⇒ e is the identity in H.
Hence H itself is a group.
∴ H is a subgroup of G.

Example: The set S of all ordered pairs (a, b) of real numbers for which a ≠ 0 w.r.t the
operation × defined by (a, b) × (c, d) = (ac, bc + d) is non-abelian. Let H= {(1, b)| b ∈ R} is a
subset of S. Show that H is a subgroup of (S, ×).
Solution: Identity element in S is (1, 0). Clearly (1, 0) ∈ H.
Inverse of (a, b) in S is (1/a,-b/a ) (∵ a ≠ 0)
Inverse of (1, c) in S is (1, -c/1 ), i.e., (1, −c)
−1
Clearly (1, c) ∈ H ⇒ (1, c) = (1, −c) ∈ H.
Let (1, b) ∈ H.
−1
(1, b) × (1, c) = (1, b) × (1, −c)
= (1.1, b.1 − c) = (1, b − c) ∈ H (∵ b − c ∈ R)
−1
∴ (1, b), (1, c) ∈ H ⇒ (1, b) × (1, c) ∈ H ∴ H is a
subgroup of (S, ×).
Note: (1, b) × (1, c) = (1.1, b.1 + c)
=(1, b + c)
=(1, c + b)
=(1, c) × (1, b)
∴ H is an abelian subgroup of the non-abelian group (S, ×).
Theorem: If H1 and H2 are two subgroups of a group G, then H1 ∩ H2 is also a subgroup of
G.
Proof: Let H1 and H2 be two subgroups of a group G.
Let e be the identity element in G.
∴ e ∈ H1 and e ∈ H2. ∴ e ∈ H1 ∩
H2.
⇒ H1 ∩ H2 ≠ ϕ.
Let a ∈ H1 ∩ H2 and b ∈ H1 ∩ H2.

99
∴ a ∈ H1, a ∈ H2 and b ∈ H1, b ∈ H2.
−1
Since H1 is a subgroup, a ∈ H1 and b ∈ H1 ⇒ ab ∈ H1.
−1
Similarly ab ∈ H2.
−1
∴ ab ∈ H1 ∩ H2.
−1
Thus we have, a ∈ H1 ∩ H2, b ∈ H1 ∩ H2 ⇒ ab ∈ H1 ∩ H2.
∴ H1 ∩ H2 is a subgroup of G.
Example: Let G be the group and Z={x ∈ G| xy=yx for all y∈G}. Prove that Z is a subgroup of
G.
Solution: Since e ∈ G and ey = ye, for all y ∈ G. It follows that e ∈ Z.
Therefore Z is non-empty.
Take any a, b ∈ Z and any y ∈ G. Then
(ab)y = a(by)
=a(yb), since b ∈ Z, by = yb
=(ay)b
=(ya)b
=y(ab)
This show that ab ∈ Z.
Let a ∈ Z ⇒ ay = ya for all y ∈ G.
−1 −1 −1 −1
⇒ a (ay)a = a (ya)a
−1 −1 −1 −1
⇒ (a a)(ya ) = (a y)(aa )
−1 −1 −1 −1
⇒ e(ya ) = (a y)e ⇒ a y = ay
−1
This shows that a ∈ Z.
−1
Thus, when a, b ∈ Z, we have ab ∈ Z and a ∈ Z.
Therefore Z is a subgroup of G.
This subgroup is called the center of G.
Homomorphism
′
Homomorphism into: Let (G, ∗) and (G , ·) be two groups and f be a mapping from G into
′ ′
G . If for a, b ∈ G, f(a∗b) = f(a)·f(b), then f is called homomorphism G into G .
′
Homomorphism onto: Let (G, ∗) and (G , ·) be two groups and f be a mapping from G onto
′ ′
G . If for a, b ∈ G, f(a∗b) = f(a)·f(b), then f is called homomorphism G onto G .
Also then G′ is said to be a homomorphic image of G. We write this as f(G)  G′.
′ ′
Isomorphism: Let (G, ∗) and (G , ·) be two groups and f be a one-one mapping of G onto G .
′
If for a, b ∈ G, f(a ∗ b) = f(a) · f(b), then f is said to be an isomorphism from G onto G .
Endomorphism: A homomorphism of a group G into itself is called an endomor-phism.
Monomorphism: A homomorphism into is one-one, then it is called an monomor-phism.
Epimorphism: If the homomorphism is onto, then it is called epimorphism.
Automorphism: An isomorphism of a group G into itself is called an automorphism.

100
 ′
Example: Let G be the additive group of integers and G be the multiplicative group. Then
′ x ′
mapping f : G → G given by f(x) = 2 is a group homomorphism of G into G .
x y ′ x y ′
Solution: Since x, y ∈ G ⇒ x + y ∈ G and 2 , 2 ∈ G ⇒ 2 · 2 ∈ G .
x+y x y
∴ f(x + y) = 2 = 2 · 2 = f(x) · f(y).
′
⇒ f is a homomorphism of G into G .
′
Example: Let G be a group of positive real numbers under multiplication and G be a group of
′
all real numbers under addition. The mapping f : G → G given by f(x) = log10 x. Show that f
is an isomorphism.
Solution: Given f(x) = log10 x.
′
Let a, b ∈ G ⇒ ab ∈ G. Also, f(a), f(b) ∈ G .
∴ f(ab) = log10 ab = log10 a + log10 b = f(a) + f(b).
′
⇒ f is a homomorphism from G into G .
Let x1, x2 ∈ G and f(x1) = f(x2)

⇒ log10 x1 = log10 x2

⇒ 10
log x log x
10 1
= 10 10 2

⇒ x1 = x2
⇒ f is one-one.
y y
⇒ f(10 ) = log10(10 ) = y.
′ y y
∴ For ever y ∈ G , there exists 10 ∈ G such that f(10 ) = y
⇒ f is onto.
′
∴ f an isomorphism from G to G .
+
Example: If R is the group of real numbers under the addition and R is the group of positive
+ x
real numbers under the multiplication. Let f : R → R be defined by f(x) = e , then show that f
is an isomorphism.
+ x
Solution: Let f : R → R be defined by f(x) = e .
f is one-one: Let a, b ∈ G and f(a) = f(b)
a b
⇒e =e
a b
⇒ log e = log e
⇒ a log e = b log e
⇒a=b
Thus f is one-one.
+ log c
f is onto: If c ∈ R then log c ∈ R and f(log c) = e =c
+
Thus each element of R has a pre-image in R under f and hence f is onto.
a+b a b
f is Homomorphism: f(a + b) = e = e .e = f(a).f(b) Hence f is an isomorphism.

101
 −1
Example: Let G be a multiplicative group and f : G → G such that for a ∈ G, f(a) = a .
Prove that f is one-one and onto. Also, prove that f is homomorphism if and only if G is
commutative.
−1
Solution: f : G → G is a mapping such that f(a) = a , for a ∈ G.
(i). To prove that f is one-one.
−1 −1
Let a, b ∈ G. ∴ a , b ∈ G and f(a), f(b) ∈ G.
Now f(a) = f(b)
−1 −1
⇒a =b

⇒ (a−1)−1 = (b−1)−1
⇒a=b
∴ f is one-one.

(ii). To prove that f is onto.

−1 −1 −1 −1
Let a ∈ G. ∴ a ∈ G such that f(a ) = (a ) = a.
∴ f is onto.
(iii). Suppose f is a homomorphism.
For a, ∈ G, ab ∈ G. Now f(ab) = f(a)f(b)

⇒ b−1a−1 = a−1b−1
−1 −1 −1
⇒ (ab) =a b

⇒ (b−1a−1)−1 = (a−1b−1)−1

⇒ (a−1)−1(b−1)−1 = (b−1)−1(a−1)−1
⇒ ab = ba
∴ G is abelian.
(iv). Suppose G is abelian ⇒ ab = ba, ∀ a, b ∈ G.
−1
For a, b ∈ G, f(ab) = (ab)

= b−1a−1

=a−1b−1
=f(a)f(b)
∴ f is a homomorphism.

102