2.
08 L O A D S O N B U ILDINGS
In enclosing space for habitation, the structural system of a building
must be able to support two types of loads—static and dynamic.
Static Loads
• Dead loads are static loads acting Static loads are assumed to be applied slowly to a structure until
vertically downward on a structure, it reaches its peak value without fluctuating rapidly in magnitude or
comprising the self-weight of the position. Under a static load, a structure responds slowly and its
structure and the weight of building deformation reaches a peak when the static force is maximum.
elements, fixtures, and equipment
permanently attached to it. • Live loads comprise any moving or movable loads on a structure
resulting from occupancy, collected snow and water, or moving
equipment. A live load typically acts vertically downward but may
act horizontally as well to reflect the dynamic nature of a moving
load.
• Occupancy loads result from the weight of people, furniture,
stored material, and other similar items in a building. Building
codes specify minimum uniformly distributed unit loads for
various uses and occupancies.
• Settlement loads are imposed • Snow loads are created by the weight of snow accumulating on
on a structure by subsidence of a roof. Snow loads vary with geographic location, site exposure,
a portion of the supporting soil wind conditions, and roof geometry.
and the resulting differential • Rain loads result from the accumulation of water on a roof
settlement of its foundation. because of its form, deflection, or the clogging of its drainage
system.
• Ground pressure is the horizontal
force a soil mass exerts on a
vertical retaining structure.
• Impact loads are kinetic loads of short duration due to moving
• Water pressure is the hydraulic vehicles, equipment, and machinery. Building codes treat this
force groundwater exerts on a load as a static load, compensating for its dynamic nature by
foundation system. amplifying the static load.
• Thermal stresses are the
compressive or tensile stresses Dynamic Loads
developed in a material Dynamic loads are applied suddenly to a structure, often with rapid
constrained against thermal changes in magnitude and point of application. Under a dynamic
expansion or contraction. load, a structure develops inertial forces in relation to its mass and
its maximum deformation does not necessarily correspond to the
maximum magnitude of the applied force. The two major types of
dynamic loads are wind loads and earthquake loads.
In addition to resisting the crushing or buckling from gravity loads, exterior bearing
walls are subject to bending from horizontal wind loads. These forces are
transferred to horizontal roof and floor planes and then to lateral force-resisting
elements acting perpendicular to the bearing walls.
The hierarchical sequence of load tracing is generally the same for concrete,
steel, and timber spanning systems.
Because it must safely support moving loads, a floor system should be relatively
stiff while maintaining its elasticity. Due to the detrimental effects that
excessive deflection and vibration would have on finish flooring and ceiling
materials, as well as on human comfort, deflection rather than bending often
becomes the critical controlling factor in the design of floor systems.
Load Tracing
Load tracing is the process of modeling how a structure collects, channels, and
redirects the loads resulting from external forces through the hierarchy of its
members to the foundation and underlying soil. The analysis usually starts at the
roof level with the smallest members actually picking up the loading, and proceeds
by tracing the loads through each collecting member. The reactions of each member
to its loading become forces on the supporting members in the next layer.
of the structure, it is usually appropriate to select a distributed type of structure
using a number of relatively smaller, more closely spaced spanning elements, such
as joists. Distributed structural systems, however, are not well suited to carrying
concentrated loads, which require fewer and larger one-way spanning elements
such as girders and trusses for their support.
3.1
Compressive Tensile Young’s
Density Fire
Material Strength Strength Modulus Durability Sustainability
(kN/m³) 2 2 2 Resistance
(N/mm ) (N/mm ) (N/mm )
Mud / Clay 17–18 1–2 0.1–0.3 500–1000 Low Low Excellent
Wood (Timber) 6–9 30–40 70–100 9,000–14,000 Poor Moderate Excellent
Bamboo 6–8 40–60 100–200 10,000–20,000 Poor Moderate Excellent
ly i
Brick 18–20 5–10 0.3–0.6 2,000–5,000 Good Good Good
on sh
Glass 24–26 800–1000 30–90 70000 Poor Good Moderate
e Jo
Concrete (M20) 24–25 20 2–3 25000 Excellent Excellent Moderate
Structural Steel
78.5 415 415 200000 Poor Excellent Poor
(Fe415)
os t
3.2
rp an
Structural
Material Tension Compression Shear Bending Torsion
Nature
Brittle, non-
pu sh
Mud / Earth Very Poor Moderate Poor Very Poor Very Poor
elastic
Brick Poor
l ra Good Low–Moderate Poor Poor Brittle
Stone Very Poor Very High Low Poor Very Poor Moderate brittle
na P
Wood (Timber) Good Good Good Very Good Good Flexible, ductile
io r.
Concrete Very Poor Very High Moderate Very Poor Very Poor Brittle
Steel Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Highly ductile
at A
Glass Low Very good Low Poor Poor Extremely brittle
uc by
Ed d
r re
Fo epa
Pr