Section A (5 × 2 = 10 Marks)
(Short, 2-mark answers)
1. Write the general heat conduction equation in rectangular coordinates.
For an isotropic medium with thermal conductivity k(x, y, z), volumetric
heat- generation q˙, density ρ and specific heat c, the general heat
conduction equation (transient) in Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates is
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂T ∂T
∂T ∂T
(k ) + (k ) + (k ) = ρc .
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t
+ q˙
Ifk is constant this becomes k∇2T + q˙ = ρc ∂T
/∂t.
2. Define critical insulation thickness.
Critical insulation thickness is the radius of insulation (on a cylinder or
sphere) at which the heat loss to the environment is maximum. For a
cylindrical rod with insulation of thermal conductivity k and external
convective coefficient h, the critical radius rc,cyl is
rc,cyl = k .
h
2k
For a sphere the critical radius is r = . For insulation thicker
, adding more
than r
c,sph c
h
insulation decreases heat loss; for thinner than rc adding insulation increases heat
loss.
3. What is composite wall? Give one example.
A composite wall consists of two or more layers of different materials arranged in
series
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in the direction of heat flow. Each layer has different thermal conductivity.
Example: A brick wall plastered on both sides (plaster–brick–plaster) or a pipe
with metal tube and insulating coating.
4. State any two assumptions used in one-dimensional heat conduction.
Two common assumptions:
1. Temperature varies only in one coordinate direction (e.g., x), i.e., ∂/∂y
= ∂/∂z = 0.
2. Material properties (e.g., k, ρ, c) may be constant or functions of
temperature but are uniform across the cross-section so heat flow is 1-
D. (Also often assume no internal heat generation or steady-state if
stated.)
5. What is meant by variable thermal conductivity?
Variable thermal conductivity means k depends on position and/or temperature,
e.g.
k = k(T ) or k = k(x). This requires the conduction equation to retain the form
∂x(k∂xT ) rather than with constant k.
2
k∇ T
Section B — Short Answer Type (Attempt any THREE)
(I will solve Q1, Q2 and Q3 — each 4 marks)
B-1. Derive the general heat conduction equation in polar
(cylindrical) coordinates. (4 marks)
Consider a small control volume in cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z) with sides
dr, r dθ, dz. Perform energy
balance: Net conduction inflow in r-
direction:
∂T ∂
inflow = [kr dz dθ, outflow = [kr T ] dz dθ.
]
r
r
∂r r ∂r r+dr
∂
∂T
Using Taylor expansion net conduction
(kr ) dr dθ dz.
∂r ∂r
in r ≈ Similarly for θ-direction net
conduction:
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∂ ∂T dr dz
(k )
∂θ ∂θ r
(when assembled correctly gives the standard operator).
Add z-direction term and internal generationq˙ dr r dθ dz. Equate net
conduction + generation = rate of energy increase ρc∂T /∂t ⋅ r dr dθ dz.
Final form (general transient, isotropic but possibly k = k(r, θ, z)):
1 ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂T
1 (kr ) + (k ) (k ) = ρc .
+ + q˙
r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ ∂θ
2 ∂z ∂z ∂t
For constant k:
1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂2T ∂2T ρc ∂T
(r ) + ∂ + + = ∂
r ∂r θ ∂ z q˙ k k t
∂r 2 2 .
r2
B-2. Explain steady one-dimensional heat conduction through a
plane wall. (4 marks)
Model & assumptions: plane wall of thickness L, constant thermal
conductivity k, steady-state (∂T /∂t = 0), heat flow only in x-direction (1-
D), uniform cross-sectional area A, internal generation possibly zero.
Governing equation: For steady 1-D with no generation:
d dT d2T
(
k ) =0 ⇒ = 0.
dx dx
k
dx2
Integrate twice → linear temperature distribution:
T (x) = C1x + C2.
For boundary conditions T (0) = T1, T (L) = T2 we get
T2 − T1
T (x) = T1 + x.
L
Heat flux (Fourier’s
law):
q = −kAdT = kAT1 − T2.
x
dx L
If convection on surfaces is present (e.g., at x = 0 and x = L with h),
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then temperature at wall surfaces relates to fluid temperatures via
convective boundary conditions:
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dT
− dx
x=0
= h[T (0) − T∞], etc. For composite walls use series thermal resistance:
k
T1 − T2
q = (1/kA) ∑ Li.
B-3. Discuss heat transfer from extended surfaces (fins). (4 marks)
Purpose: Increase surface area to enhance convective heat transfer.
Model (straight uniform fin): One-dimensional conduction along fin length x
with convective loss from lateral surface. For constant properties and steady-
state, energy balance on differential element gives:
d dT
(kA c ) − hP (T − T∞ ) = 0,
d
x dx
where Ac = cross-sectional area of = perimeter, h = convective coefficient. Let
fin, P θ(x) = T (x) − T∞. For
constant k, Ac:
d2θ
hP
dx — m2θ = m2 kA .
2
0, = c
General solution: θ = C1 cosh(mx) + C2 sinh(mx). Apply boundary
conditions (e.g., base temperature θ(0) = θb; tip insulated: dθ/dx∣L = 0;
or tip convective) to get constants.
Key metrics:
Fin efficiency ηf actual heat from fin qfin
= hA θ .
= heat if entire fin at base temp
f b
Fin effectiveness qfin qfin
= q = where As is original surface area without
εf no hAsθ
fin b
fin.
Use: radiator fins, heat sinks, extended surfaces in boilers.
(If the examiner prefers different three Qs from B, I can swap — but these are
standard.)
Section C — Long Answer Type (Attempt any ONE)
(I solve Q1 — 8 marks)
C-1. Derive the general heat conduction equation in spherical
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coordinates and discuss its applications. (8 marks)
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(a) Derivation (energy balance on spherical element)
Consider a small spherical shell element between radius r and r + dr, with
angular extents dθ and dϕ. For isotropic material and temperature T (r, θ, ϕ,
t), perform energy balance:
Net radial conduction into element:
∂T ∂T ∂ ∂T
netr = [kr 2
] dΩ −[ kr
2
] dΩ ≈ − ( kr2 ) dr dΩ,
r ∂r ∂r ∂r
r+dr
where dΩ = sin θ dθ dϕ is solid angle element. Include analogous terms for
θ and ϕ directions. Add internal generation q˙ r2 sin θ dr dθ dϕ and equate
to rate of energy increase:
∂
T ρc
∂t r2 sin θ dr dθ dϕ.
Dividing through by volume element gives the general PDE in spherical
coordinates (transient):
1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T
(kr2 ) + (k sin θ ) 1 ∂ ∂T ∂T
(k ) + = ρc
+ q˙
r2 ∂r ∂r r2 sin θ ∂θ r2 sin2 θ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂t
∂θ
For constant k this simplifies to
1 ∂ 2 ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂2T ∂T
k[ (r ) + (sin θ ) + ] + q˙ = ρc .
r2 ∂r ∂r r2 sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r2 sin2 θ ∂ϕ2 ∂t
Or dividing by
k:
∂ ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂2T q˙ ρc ∂T
12 ( r2 ) + 2 (sin θ ) + 2 2 + = .
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ2 k ∂t
∂θ
∂r
k
(b) Special case — radial symmetry
If temperature depends only on r (spherically symmetric), ∂/∂θ = ∂/∂ϕ = 0.
Then the PDE reduces to
d 2 dT q˙ ρc ∂T
1r2 dr
(r dr) + k = k ∂t .
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1 d dT
For steady-state with no generation: (r2 ) = 0 ⇒ solution T (r) = C1 +
r2 dr dr
2
Cr .
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(c) Applications (brief)
Temperature distribution in spherical solids (e.g., ball bearings,
catalyst pellets). Transient heating/cooling of droplets, food
particles, fuel pellets in reactors.
Radially symmetric heat conduction problems in geophysics (e.g., heat
from Earth’s core approximations).
Design and analysis of spherical pressure vessel components, thermal
response of spherical electronic packages.
(d) Boundary conditions & methods
Apply appropriate BCs: specified temperature, specified flux, or convective
boundary at outer surface. Solutions found via separation of variables, series
solutions, or use of lumped-capacitance if Biot number small; otherwise
transient solutions (Heisler charts or eigenfunction expansions).
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