1

INTRODUCTION

Hybrid is a generic term that defines the o¤spring of genetically dissimilar

parents or stock. In a similar way, hybrid microelectronics can be defined as
the packaging and interconnection of dissimilar microelectronics devices from
thick- and thin-film technologies, combined with semiconductor device tech-
nology and discrete devices. The packaging design is intermediate between
conventional design, in which discrete components are mounted on a circuit
board, and monolithic integrated circuit design in a single unit or package. The
interconnections may include deposited resistors, capacitors, and inductors,
originating from thick- or thin-film technology or both, or these passive com-
ponents may be mounted in chip form on the surface of an insulated substrate.
The principal benefit of hybrid microelectronics is the ability to choose and
mix di¤erent technologies to best meet the requirements of the twenty-first
century. The microelectronic industry is divided primarily into two classes of
technologies: monolithic integrated circuit (IC) technology and the hybrid
microcircuit technology. These two technologies di¤er primarily in the degree
of integration and sophistication involved in producing products that might
appear in seemingly identical final packages. However, in combination, hybrid
microcircuit technology represents numerous advanced packaging concepts
that might encompass the precision integration of ICs with various discrete
components on suitable substrates. The size of the original transistor is com-
parable to that of the hybrid microcircuit: about 4.5
5.0 cm 2 . In truth, hybrid
microcircuit technology is a bridge between a monolithic IC and a printed cir-
cuit board product. Moreover, hybrid microcircuit system modules are used in

Handbook of Thick- and Thin-Film Hybrid Microelectronics, By Tapan K. Gupta

ISBN 0-471-27229-9 6 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

1
2 INTRODUCTION

all facets of today’s electronics industry, starting with their initial application in
the computer and defense industries. As the state of the art grew, composition
suppliers broadened their lines, developing new high-performance materials to
meet challenging and sophisticated circuitry. In many applications a hybrid
circuit is used because there is no alternative technology, especially when the
application is in the high-frequency microwave region.
Advanced hybrids generally comprise more ICs, with discrete devices
mounted on an insulated substrate together with screen-printed thick-film and/
or vacuum-deposited thin-film components. The hybrid segment of the micro-
electronic industry is in transition as new technology [e.g., the multichip mod-
ule (MCM)] has emerged in the market. One definition of MCM is that it is
a combination of two or more semiconductor devices, possibly with passive
elements, on a common substrate to produce an electronic circuit function. The
new technology allows for rapid, inexpensive development of MCM with small
to medium-sized volumes.
In 1964, Fairchild’s Gordon Moore estimated that the density of microcir-
cuit devices would double each year, and necessitating a high level of minia-
turization in the microelectronics industry. In 1975, Intel assembled a complete
computer on a single board with the help of a hybrid structure, combining
monolithic devices with thick- and thin-film circuitry. Thus a new concept in
hybrid microelectronic circuitry was born and industries found a use for hybrid
technology as an alternative microelectronics module. If there is indeed to be
a new revolution in society and/or the economy, hybrid microelectronics has
already established footholds in all sectors, and it is infiltrating, although qui-
etly as yet, the entire fabric of society.

1.1 HYBRID MICROCIRCUIT FAMILY

The elements of the hybrid microcircuit family are shown in Figure 1.1.

1.1.1 Printed Circuit Board

A printed circuit board (PCB) [1] is a predetermined printed electrical circuit
produced by printing or forming an electrical conducting pattern on a base

Figure 1.1 Hybrid microcircuit family.

 HYBRID MICROCIRCUIT FAMILY 3

substrate. The plastic copper-laminated substrate may be rigid or flexible and

coated with an insulating material whose surface will be printed on. Discrete
components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, or printed conducting lines
may be part of a PCB. Unlike common electrical circuits that employ wires
from point to point, the printed circuit is a two-dimensional array, usually
produced as a film on a flat surface [2].

1.1.2 Thick Film

The term thick film [3] is derived from the fact that the fired film is fairly thick,
varying from 0.2 mil (5.08 mm) to 2 mils (50.8 mm). The film is deposited
through a screen (either silk or stainless steel) by selective deposition of a paste
or slurry, which is often called ink. The substrate material is generally a
ceramic or refractory material.

1.1.3 Thin Film

Thin and thick films are defined not only by their thickness but also by the way
they are deposited. Thin film [4] is deposited on an insulating substrate gener-
ally by vacuum deposition, and finer structures are made either by an additive
method through masks or by a subtractive method by means of photolithogra-
phy. The thickness of a thin film can vary from perhaps 50 angstroms to several
thousands of angstroms (1 Å ¼ 1010 m ¼ 4.0
106 mil).

1.1.4 Integrated Circuit

An IC is also called a monolithic IC (monolithic is derived from the Greek
monos, meaning single, and lithos, meaning stone) [5]. It consists of a single
chip, generally of silicon [gallium arsenide (GaAs) is also used], typically 50 by
50 mils (1.27 by 1.27 mm) containing both active elements (transistors, diodes,
etc.) and passive elements (resistors and capacitors) and their interconnections.
Thus a monolithic IC is built on a single crystal (single stone) substrate [6].
Almost all the circuit elements are fabricated within the substrate by such
processes as epitaxial growth, masked impurity di¤usion, oxide growth, and
oxide etching, using photolithography for pattern definition. Finally, internal
contacts are made with an alloy of aluminum with 1 to 2% silicon and 2 to
4% copper [7–9]. However, two much Cu (more than 2%) creates problems in
a dry etching system. The overall dimension of a typical transistor in an IC
is 140 by 95 mm [10]. The feature size is shrinking at an appropriate annual rate
of 11% and is thus expected to reach a minimum feature size of 10 2 nm (0.1
nm ¼ 0.004 mil) by the year 2006 [11]. In fact, a device with a feature size as
small as 0.005 mil (0.13 mm) has been reported [12]. As scientists have reduced
feature size (from 1 mm in 1990 to 0.13 mm in 2002), faster transistors, and
packing them together with the existing conductor (aluminum alloy), have
become a problem. Aluminum alloy (Al, Cu, and Si) has long been the con-
4 INTRODUCTION

ductor of choice, but pushing electrons through smaller dimensions with alu-
minum alloy lines just is not fast enough. Thus copper as the conducting
material and low-K dielectric materials (organic and inorganic) for faster
devices and reduced RC delays have been introduced and are in production.
When the feature size is small and the trenches and vias have high aspect
ratios, copper damascene technology has proved to be the answer. A physical
vapor deposition seed layer with electroplated copper with spin-on or vacuum-
deposited low-K dielectrics (between 1 and 3, compared to about 4 for SiO2 )
has gained support rapidly. However, the basic unwritten rule for low-K mate-
rials is that for a given application, they should integrate no di¤erently than
silicon oxides (i.e., they should show similar or better chemical and mechanical
integrity). Dry etching of copper is di‰cult, and the metal has a high di¤usion
rate through silicon and its oxides. These two problems have been addressed
very e‰ciently by chemical mechanical planarization and providing an addi-
tional barrier layer of the nitrides of transition metals between copper and sili-
con dioxide on silicon substrate. As the feature size is shrinking and new
materials for conductor and dielectrics are introduced, deep ultraviolet (DUV)
photolithography seems to be mandatory. Since DUV resist materials are
transparent for low-K materials, an additional antireflection coating has
become necessary. In the field of thin-film deposition, atomic layer chemical
vapor deposition technology is competing for atomic-scale (for 100-nm devices)
metal deposition, intermetal layer deposition, and multilayer circuits. The
advancement in very large scale integrated (VLSI) semiconductor technology
is largely attributed to advances in materials, in particular advances in poly-
meric materials [13,14]. Recently, all-polymer ICs have been fabricated at Phi-
lips Research Laboratories in Eindhoven, The Netherlands, on flexible sub-
strates that can sustain sharp bends while maintaining functionality [15].

1.1.5 Modules
Modules are defined as separable units, components, or circuits in which each
unit has identical dimensions, characteristics, or forms. Modules are standard
units or building blocks that can be assembled quickly or economically. The
module concept is the result of a research program in the 1950s. The project,
known as Tinkertoy, o¤ered the idea of interchangeability of parts that could
be obtained and mass-produced quickly by changing from one type of module
to another [16]

1.2 NEED FOR HYBRID MICROCIRCUITS

Hybrid microcircuit technology has a long history, dating back to the 1940s. At
that time microelectronics circuits consisted of resistors and electrodes printed
on titanate ceramic substrates. That was the state of the art until 1947, when
a small group of researchers and technical managers invented the transistor at
Bell Labs (Figure 1.2). Figure 1.2(a) shows the newly born transistor at Bell
 NEED FOR HYBRID MICROCIRCUITS 5

Figure 1.2 (a) The first transistor, produced at

Bell Labs, December 1947 (courtesy of Andrew
Wylie); (b) a typical thick- and thin-film hybrid
circuit (courtesy of SST International, Downey,
California). The two devices are comparable in
size.

laboratories in December 1947, and Figure 1.2(b) is a high-density advanced

hybrid microcircuit packaging unit, a product of the twenty-first century. With
this invention, the need for miniaturization of semiconductor devices became
the major issue in industry and in research laboratories. In the late 1950s and
early 1960s, Radio Corporation of America (RCA) came out with some new
ideas for miniaturization when they were working on a micromodule program
funded by the Department of Defense (DoD). RCA developed small ceramic
substrates for microcircuit fabrication with excellent structural strength and
low thermal and electrical conduction. This DoD program provided the mo-
mentum for a new phase of industrial development. A coordinated attack by
industry and research organizations gave birth to the IC [17]. Thus a com-
pletely workable microelectronics system evolved, and a new technology called
ceramic integrated circuits emerged on the market. This new ceramic technol-
ogy was soon joined with silicon technology to give birth to what is now termed
hybrid microcircuit technology [18,19].
The needs of the DoD have long been a driving force in the evolution of
sophisticated hybrid microelectronic systems, which package more functions
into smaller volumes at lower cost. The DoD recognized very early the need for
hybrid microelectronics and their significance for defense systems. Substantial
6 INTRODUCTION

sums thus became available to industry, and during the decade of the 1960s this
hybrid technology matured under the impetus of DoD programs. Its explosive
growth continued during the 1990s at an even faster pace. As hybrid micro-
circuits became increasingly powerful, much of the innovation was stimu-
lated by consumer electronics, such as calculators, watches, television sets, and
automotive applications such as voltage regulators [20]. As a matter of fact, the
history of hybrids has been fast moving, dynamic, frenetic, exciting, at times
frustrating, and fun.

1.2.1 Multilayer Circuits

Higher system performance, lower-cost material systems, and cost-e¤ective
manufacturing systems represent some of the major factors shaping advance-
ments in microelectronic packaging [21]. However, the driving force is the need
for increased circuit density. Multilayer technology [22] allows one to increase
circuit density in the most cost-e¤ective way while keeping the size and weight
of the module as low as possible. Thick- and thin-film ceramic hybrid technol-
ogy is the only technology, that can address this. Figure 1.3 shows a three-
conductor-layer thick-film hybrid circuit that is used for sensing circuitry in a
prototype biomedical system. Because of the low firing temperatures and low
cost, many microcircuit manufacturers favor, thick-film processes over thin-
film processes [23]. Moreover, thick-film technology is reliable and flexible, and
the availability of compatible high-performance, low-cost resistors accounts for
heavy industry penetration [24]. The process has become cost-e¤ective because
there are multiple layers in one module. This type of circuitry is possible only in
a hybrid circuit system.

1.2.2 Military Applications

In the military market segment, new programs require the use of very high
speed ICs (VHSICs) and microwave/millimeter ICs (MMICs) [25,26]. VHSICs

Figure 1.3 Multilayer thick-film hybrid circuit [20].

 NEED FOR HYBRID MICROCIRCUITS 7

are complex in nature and require small leads and compact packaging. A unit
may have 300 to 600 leads, and such high-density packaging requires a good
heat dissipation capacity. A multiple-layer hybrid circuit approach, coupled
with fine lines and spaces and small vias within a single package, has proven
to be very successful. This multilayer design has cut down on the size and
manufacturing cost of a circuit. This is possible because designers of hybrid
circuits have been able to incorporate VHSICs into multilayer hybrid micro-
circuits [22]. Ceramic substrate is generally used in hybrid circuits, as it o¤ers
higher thermal conductivity than that of silicon or gallium arsenide [27]. In
some cases, organic film-forming materials are used in a hybrid circuit to pro-
vide good high-temperature characteristics and insulation between the substrate
and the circuit elements. This is accompanied by a thin-film copper conductor,
which provides a low-temperature environment for deposition on the ceramic
substrate. The undesirable inductance levels at high frequencies due to the skin
e¤ect are avoided by rectangular leads provided by tape-automated bonding
(TAB). Furthermore, the preassembly electrical test capability o¤ered by TAB
allows all devices to be tested electrically prior to package assembly [28]. This
is possible only with hybrid microcircuit technology.

1.2.3 Data Processing

The predominant trend in the data processing market segment is increased
processing speed [29]. To cope with this, the data processing engineer has
introduced a di¤erent version of hybrid microelectronic circuitry in a double-
sided hybrid circuit board (HCB). For the ICs to talk to one another, the sig-
nals must travel through long distances along the board, and crosstalk and
interference are common events [30]. To eliminate these problems, ICs with
more functions are used and combined with other ICs mounted directly to
a multilayer ceramic substrate (generally, ceramics have high mechanical
strength, excellent thermal properties, and low cost compared to silicon).
Recently, the MCM concept [31] is introduced in the hybrid family to elim-
inate the need for traditional first- and second-level packaging. The basic
implications of such a scheme are higher density through an increased number
of functions with a shorter connection length. This has reduced input/output
(I/O) spacing, incorporated higher speeds, improved thermal performance, and
lowered the cost.

1.2.4 Telecommunications
For microelectronics, trends in the telecommunication market segment [32,33]
are similar to those of data processing since the two industries are beginning
to cross and merge. The circuits are characterized by the need for high density
with fine lines and spaces, faster switching speeds, reduced size, and high-
conductivity interconnection. The Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN)
is an example of where the telecommunication industry is headed in the near
8 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.4 GTD-5 digital switch used in a line hybrid telecommunication system [35].
(Courtesy of DuPont, Wilmington, Delaware.)

future [34]. ISDN is described as the ultimate convergence of voice, data, fac-
simile, and video and is expected to have the fastest growth in the market seg-
ment. It is expected that ISDN will cover a broad range of field in equipment
and device segments (e.g., intelligent equipment, optoelectronic devices, digital
loop carrier gear, and special service equipment).
Thick-film hybrid technology has a long history of meeting demanding, yet
cost-sensitive applications in the telecommunications segment. A recent exam-
ple is the line hybrid manufactured by AG Communications System (AGCS) of
Genoa, Illinois [35]. Figure 1.4 shows the GTD-5 digital switch designed and
manufactured by AGCS. With the growth in the volume of voice and data
services, including emergency services and the Internet, system reliability is
critical. Although the public-switched telephone network in the United States
is regarded as among the best in the world, it still experiences service inter-
ruptions. These interruptions, however infrequent, are well documented in
the press and serve as unpleasant reminders of our increasing dependence on
the public telephone network. However, during 1998–1999, the GTD switch
designed and manufactured by AGCS, with more than 17 million line hybrids,
was installed in the United States. The system is the most reliable in the com-
petitive and fast-growing telecommunication market.

1.2.5 Automotive Industry

Another important market segment for hybrid microelectronics is the automo-
tive industry. It may become the largest growth area for hybrid electronics in
the next decade [36]. It is expected that by the year 2010, this industry will grow
fourfold. Figure 1.5 shows an automotive pressure sensor that monitors atmo-
 NEED FOR HYBRID MICROCIRCUITS 9

Figure 1.5 Automotive pressure sensor

fabricated following thick-film hybrid cir-
cuit technology [20].

spheric and engine manifold pressure. The device can operate nicely in a harsh
environment. Some other electronic devices in which hybrid microelectronics is
an essential part of devices used in automobiles are antilock breaking systems,
direct fire ignition, electronic engine management, and multiplex linking of
electronic components.
All the electronic circuits used in the automotive devices cited above come
from hybrid microelectronics. There is no alternative to the hybrid circuit when
double-sided substrates with holes or crossovers are needed. It is expected that
the automobile industry, also, will need multilayer circuits to maximize space
and cost. There is no alternative technology to meet the demands of the fast-
growing automobile industry other than hybrid microelectronics technology
[37].

1.2.6 Medical Science

Advances in medical care devices have generated an important and growing
market for hybrid microelectronics [38]. The need for high standards of relia-
bility and the importance of an encapsulating package of high integrity both
demonstrate a very happy fit between the requirements imposed by the appli-
cation and the features that hybrid technology has to o¤er [39]. Whether it is a
cardiac pacemaker to provide electric stimuli to the heart muscle or implanta-
tion of a cardiac defibrillator to stop the chaotic activity of the muscle forming
the wall of the two major chambers of the heart, or myoelectric control of a
hand prosthesis, highly reliable compact packaging of multicomponent assem-
blies of the hybrid microelectronic circuitry has no alternative. Figure 1.6
shows a pacemaker fabricated on ceramic tape 175 mm (ca. 7 mil) thick that has
six conductor layers and approximately 400 filled vias [20]. As a matter of fact,
the electronic complexity, which is needed to analyze the electrocardiogram
reliably enough to detect arrhythmia and initiate defibrillation, is considerable
and could not be considered for an implant without full use being made of the
latest hybrid microelectronics. At the same time, the very advanced signal
processing technology [40]—the magical wand that commands control of pre-
hension of an artificial arm, rotation of the wrist, and rate-variable elbow flex-
10 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.6 Heart pacemaker circuit fabricated on a cofired substrate [20].

ion from electromyograms of the biceps and triceps—is realized by thick-film

hybrid circuit technology.

1.2.7 Aerospace Systems

An aircraft engine control system requires a full-wave rectifier designed to
operate at 15 V with a 20-A current, together with a high-speed switching
transistor with drivers and a dc-to-dc converter [30]. The power dissipation
factor of the system is 5.5 W. Hybridization of aircraft engine control systems
has been implemented successfully through integral substrate packaging (ISP),
which requires very high conductivity, low inductance (beam leads are part of
the design), and an electrically isolated base [41]. The use of ISP devices has
resulted in a surface-area reduction of 6 : 1 and an overall volume savings of
12 : 1. A small unit with such a high power-handling capacity makes possible
the development of a hybrid microcircuit that uses ceramic substrate. A 50-W
triple-output dc-to-dc converter fabricated by Delco is shown in Figure 1.7.

1.2.8 High-Frequency Circuits [42]

Invariably, as operating frequency is increased, inductors need to be included in
circuits. In PCB technology, inductors were included as a separate discrete
component, resulting in a bulky, space-consuming circuit. However, monolithic
integrated circuits cannot accommodate an inductor as a circuit element. Flat
spiral inductors, both circular and rectangular [43,44], can be printed with
thick-film materials on the alumina substrate of a hybrid microcircuit. The
process of printing an inductor in a hybrid circuit together with other screen-
 WHY HYBRID MICROCIRCUITS? 11

Figure 1.7 Thick-film 50-W triple-output dc-to-dc converter [20].

printable components is cost-e¤ective and the space occupied is small com-

pared that required for an external inductor, which was generally used in ear-
lier PCB circuits. Thus a hybrid circuit consumes little space and the circuit is
not unnecessarily bulky. Only hybrid microelectronics circuit technology can
o¤er such a small, compact, and sophisticated circuit with the packaging of
functions into a smaller volume. Hybrid microcircuitry is also unique for use in
space programs.
As digital processing frequencies increase, more onboard filtering will be
needed to keep line noise below the logic noise margin and within Federal
Communications Commission emission limits. For example, Apple Computer
is using thin-film resistor/capacitor networks in Quarter Size Outline Packages
(QSOPs) as filter terminators on bus lines [45]. Similarly, unique packaging of a
1-megabit high-speed static stacked RAM module is achievable with the assis-
tance of a multilayer hybrid RAM module that is impossible to fabricate with
discrete chip carriers [46].

1.3 WHY HYBRID MICROCIRCUITS?

In many applications, hybrid circuitry is an essential part of a microelectronic

module because there is no alternative technology that can fulfill all the
requirements of modern sophisticated electronic circuitry [20]. This is particu-
larly true in high-frequency and microwave circuits, where small size, line defi-
nition, reproducibility, and cost are the major criteria of the program. At lower
frequencies hybrid resistor networks can be used very e‰ciently and in a cost-
e¤ective way compared to their discrete counterparts. In recent years, increas-
ing limitations on space and weight in military and aerospace systems have
increased demands for circuits that will achieve a higher degree of integration
12 INTRODUCTION

and maintain overall reliability and performance. Development of complex

monolithic integrated circuits by increasing component density did not solve
this problem because simultaneously, systems became more sophisticated.
Today’s high-performance military equipment is literally packed with elec-
tronic systems designed to provide the most e¤ective vehicle utilization. These
systems require new packaging techniques aimed at a higher density of circuit
elements and high power dissipation. Hybridization has become a major factor
in the acceleration of this trend [47].
Power hybrids [33] are more cost-e¤ective than monolithic hybrids in low-
production-volume situations. For high-power applications, power hybrids are
the only solution because monolithic circuits are inadequate. Power hybrid cir-
cuits are finding more use in power amplifiers, high-fidelity, and motor control,
as power switches for inverters, and in automotive ignition, regulators, and
solenoid control circuits [20]. The power transistor for these circuits requires
low-value (0.5 to 2.0 W) resistors, depending primarily on current level. Screen-
printed thick-film resistors on alumina substrate are able to handle more power
and are able to dissipate more heat than are their counterpart ICs. With laser
trimming, resistor tolerances can be controlled within G1%. Power transistors
in all these hybrid circuits are mounted on a copper pedestal, which spreads
heat flux substantially [48].
Special-function hybrids are finding a strong niche market in medical
implant devices [49]. These include pacemakers, defibrillators, and ear and
other implantation. The complexity of these implants has increased and the
demand for highly reliable small and compact packaging systems has increased.
It goes without saying that hybrid microelectronics circuitry has no alternative
in this field. Artificial arms that provide simultaneous control of prehension,
wrist rotation, and rate-variable elbow flexion from electromyograms of the
biceps and triceps are the result of research and development on special thick-
film hybrid microcircuitry [39,50].
The increasing need for equipment providing interlocking and signaling
systems under varying environmental conditions has led to more complicated
devices and circuitry, especially those used in transport machines [51]. This is
due to the large temperature ranges outdoors, with simultaneous day–night
temperature changes, and relative humidity as high as 100%. In cars and other
road vehicles, electronic equipment may be exposed to rapid temperature
changes of 5 C/min. On trains, electronic equipment is exposed to vibrations
that at low frequencies of 1 to 5 Hz reach a mean value of acceleration as high
as 3g. In harsh environments, hybrid microcircuits with preselected special ele-
ments have proved very useful for interlocking and signaling devices [52].
Another important area in which hybrid microcircuits demonstrate superi-
ority over ICs and PCBs is in their capability to accommodate more circuits
within a small area with good heat dissipation capability. Multilayer circuits
reduce the space required for wiring, reduce weight, and allow more con-
tacts and components within a specific area and space. For example, engineers
can design a 12-layer board 7.87 by 7.87 in. (20 by 20 cm) which can accom-
 APPLICATIONS OF HYBRID MICROCIRCUITS 13

modate more than 100,000 interconnections. Since techniques of manufactur-

ing multilayer circuits and selection of materials are more carefully controlled,
the reliability and quality of these hybrid microcircuits are great. Neither the
monolithic IC chip nor the PCB is able to handle such multilayer circuits in a
single module; only hybrid technology can do that [53,54].

1.4 APPLICATIONS OF HYBRID MICROCIRCUITS

Hybrid microcircuitry is an integral part of many hybrid microcircuit devices:

portable wireless devices (e.g., cellular phones, pagers, PDAs, WLANs, and PC
interfaces) [55–57]; a credit-card-size camera (Panasonic Cool Shot II), mea-
suring 3.54
2.34 by 1.23 in. (90 by 60 by 31.2 mm 3 ) and weighing 142 g
(5 oz.); a radio-frequency power amplifier for cellular phones (Miyoshi Elec-
tronics), chip-scale packaging (Hydelco, Inc.) under a harsh environment (85%
relative humidity at 85 C for 100 h and 40 to 100 C air-to-air thermal shock
testing for 1000 cycles) [35]; a power integrated module and an intelligent
power module (Siemens); multilayer ceramic circuits and a ROM-AID circuit
for automotive applications [58]; a hybrid power package for the military; and
a high-frequency microcircuit (500 MHz to 20 GHz), thermal print head, D/A
and A/D converters, sensors, and implanted cardiac defibrillators [59,60] for
use in the medical industry. To quote Whitesides [61], ‘‘Almost everything from
shoes to windows to children’s toys will have microelectronics in a few years.’’
Indeed, hybrid microelectronics technology is the gateway to the twenty-first
century.

1.4.1 Automotive Industry

Automobile Engines The use of cost-e¤ective ways to fabricate thick-film cir-
cuitry has been demonstrated successfully in the microcontroller of an elec-
tronic automobile engine [62,63]. The hybrid circuit contains six dies, an 8-bit
microcontroller, a flash EPROM, an ASIC, a dual-quad-input NOR, a latch,
and a quad-dual-input NAND [64]. Included in the hybrid are three capacitors,
two resistors, and an oscillator crystal. The dimensions of the substrate are 1.6
by 1.6 in. (4.1 by 4.1 cm), and it contains three metal layers on the top and a
ground plane on the back. The conductor layers are printed with DuPont 6160
silver metallization and the dielectric paste is DuPont’s QM 42. DuPont’s QM
32 silver via fill material is also used. The pattern has 9.75-mil (0.25 mm or
250 mm) lines and spaces and 14.62-mil (0.375 mm or 375 mm) vias. The two
10-kW resistors are printed on the top layer with DuPont 1739 ink. The passive
components are attached by solder reflow of 62% Sn/36% Ag. solder paste,
and the semiconductor dies are attached with Ablebond 84-ILMI silver epoxy.
The second hybrid microcircuit application in the automotive industry is
a ROM-AID circuit used for engine controller soft wire development and in
vehicle calibration [58]. The module contains a 16-bit microcontroller on the
14 INTRODUCTION

top, two 128k
8 RAM dies, two chip resistors, and a transistor mounted on
the back. The completed hybrid has the same footprint as that of the single-
chip microcontroller: a plastic quad flatpack (132-lead fine pitch 0.627 mm ¼
24.7 mils) [65]. A single DuPont 6160 silver conductor layer with 4.87-mil
(0.122-mm or 122-mm) lines and spaces and an encapsulated layer of DuPont
QM 42 dielectric are printed on the top. The back contains two metal layers—a
dielectric layer and an encapsulation layer.

High-Voltage Regulators for Automobiles A high-voltage regulator is required

in automobiles to meet all environmental requirements [e.g., vibration (0 to
2000 Hz, <20g); mechanical shock (50g); thermal shock (35 to 125 C)], and
it has to dissipate heat because the circuit requires a high-power transistor and
low-frequency ICs. Special metal insulated substrates are used and are fab-
ricated using hybrid microcircuit technology [53]. Experimental evidence shows
that a hybrid microcircuit is the only choice for such a harsh environment. A
thick-film hybrid voltage regulator utilizes high-current power elements, mon-
olithic chips, and thick-film networks using conductive, resistive, and thermis-
tor compositions. The regulator is constructed in two independent and separate
sections, input and output, so that each section can be fabricated in the most
convenient and compatible manner [66].

1.4.2 Commercial Products

Laser Power Detectors In recent years, laser trimming [67], soldering [68],
engraving, and micromachining [69] have been used widely in microelectronics.
The power of the laser beam is a crucial parameter in these technologies. It has
become necessary to provide a detector to measure di¤erent parameters of the
equipment used. Various laser power detectors have already been developed,
but most detectors are expensive or inaccurate [70]. Conventional laser power
detectors for low-power measurements are made of semiconductors and pyro-
electric thin-film technologies. These detectors are of high reliability and accu-
racy; however, they do not have the wide dynamic ranges required to measure
the magnitude of lasers used in michromachining, due to their easily damaged
surfaces [71]. Detectors made with thick-film technology are relatively less
expensive and can be used for high power levels. These detectors are highly
sensitive to measuring conditions. Several di¤erent types of detectors can be
produced with thick-film technology and are suitable to measure laser power
[72]. Thermopile- and thermister-based detectors [73] are both from the thick-
film hybrid family and both show linear output characteristics with no or little
hysteresis.

High-Frequency Amplifiers [74] Superior performance and smaller package

size have been achieved through hybrid technology in a microwave amplifier
that are not possible through monolithic silicon technology. The amplifier pro-
vides noise figures of less than 2.6 dB and gain above 29 dB over the 4- to 8-
 APPLICATIONS OF HYBRID MICROCIRCUITS 15

Figure 1.8 High-frequency (10 to 200 MHz)

cascadable hybrid amplifier on ceramic sub-
strate, showing the chip capacitors and induc-
tors [74]. (Courtesy of WJ Communications,
San Jose, California.)

GHz band [75,76]. The microwave circuit consists of three balanced amplifiers
utilizing chip and wire techniques to interconnect the GaAs FET die, ceramic
chip capacitors, and thin-film alumina-based microwave integrated circuitry
(MIC) [77]. This hybrid circuit enjoys quick design turnaround and higher
yields than those for monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs) [25].
Advanced technologies in materials, interconnections, substrates, and pack-
aging continue to keep the hybrid circuit industry building its base. There
are many applications, environments, and functions for which hybrid circuit
performance cannot be surpassed. The hybrid circuit world will increasingly
become one of strong niche markets and applications [78]. Figure 1.8 shows a
high-frequency thin-film hybrid circuit built on a ceramic substrate. The passive
components are the chips and deposited thin films. Additive and subtractive
processes following vacuum evaporation and photolithography produce fine
structures for the inductors.

Isolation Amplifiers The isolation amplifier [79], which passes signals accu-
rately across ground systems separated by thousands of volts, has been com-
mercially achievable through a hybrid circuit system. It is unlikely that circuits
of this type can be fabricated only with monolithic IC chip technology [80,81].
The function of the isolation amplifier depends on a means of withstanding
very common mode voltages that is easily manufactured in hybrid form. It
isolates analog signals accurately from extreme values of common-mode volt-
age or noise. Ideally, the input stage is galvanically separated from the output
stage. The physical means of separating the stages is called the barrier. The
potential di¤erence across the barrier can be as high as 3500 V rms at 60 Hz,
and the amplifier should still appear transparent to the signal [82]. Figure 1.9
shows an isolation amplifier, ISO 106 from Burr-Brown, which has a 70-kHz
bandwidth and is another example of hybrid circuit technology used to fabri-
cate the device.

1.4.3 Medical Science

Implanted Cardiac Defibrillators There are approximately 1.5 million heart
attacks each year in the United States alone, resulting in about 600,000 deaths
16 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.9 Burr-Brown (now Texas Instru-

ments) isolation amplifier [79]. (Courtesy of
Texas Instruments, Dallas, Texas.)

(three per 1000 population per year). Many of these attacks strike virtually
without warning, so therapy has only a short time available between the cessa-
tion of circulation and the onset of irreversible brain damage, leading finally
to death. Although there may be underlying (although perhaps undiagnosed)
pathology that participates an attack, ventricular fibrillation (an uncoordi-
nated, chaotic activity of the muscle forming the wall of the two major cham-
bers of the heart) is a prominent feature of sudden cardiac death. An expedient
that gives the shortest possible time to defibrillation [83] is the implanted auto-
matic defibrillator, which monitors the electrogram continuously, detects dan-
gerous disorder rhythms, and delivers a low-energy countershock within 20
seconds or so [84].
It is evident how the complexity of these electronic implants has in-
creased and how compact packaging and the high reliability of multicompo-
nent assemblies of hybrid microelectronic circuitry are being utilized. The elec-
tronic complexity needed to analyze an electrocardiogram reliably enough to
detect arrhythmia and initiate defibrillation is considerable and would not be
possible in an implant without full use of the latest hybrid microelectronics [85].

Myoelectric Control of Hand Prostheses Attempts to provide an artificial

substitute for a lost limb represent one of the oldest examples of engineering
applied to medicine. Considerable success with myoelectric prostheses [86]
fitted to children and adults has extended control from simple control of pre-
hension (grasp) to wrist rotation and control of the elbow mechanism [87]. An
artificial arm can provide simultaneous control of prehension, wrist rotation,
and rate-variable elbow flexion from the electromyograms of the biceps and
triceps [88,89]. The very advanced signal processing system for this limb, prob-
ably the most successful in terms of function, has been developed and realized
by use of thick-film hybrid circuit technology.

Cardiac Pacemakers The chambers of a normal healthy heart contract and

relax rhythmically, with contractions of the atria preceding those of the ven-
tricles by about 0.15 s. Some of the cells making up the muscle of the heart
have the capacity for self-excitation; the natural pacemaking function of the
heart results from this activity. Sometimes as a consequence of congenital
 APPLICATIONS OF HYBRID MICROCIRCUITS 17

abnormality or of disease, the conduction of electrical impulse and the coordi-

nated contraction of heart muscle are impaired. The e¤ective pumping action
may cease intermittently; in that event, consciousness will rapidly be lost.
Convulsions will occur if the heart function does not restart within 10 s or so,
and if the arrest is prolonged, death will result. Contraction of the heart muscle
and a return to normally coordinated activity can be obtained by implanting a
device called a pacemaker [90], which applies electrical stimuli. The most tech-
nically refined pacemakers today provide for sequential stimulus to both the
atrium (A) and ventricle (V) of the heart. The devices may be reprogrammed
from outside the patient using a transmitter coil brought unto the chest wall.
Pulse amplitude, pulse separation (between A and V stimuli), frequency, and
demand threshold may be set and, if necessary, adjusted in accordance with
the clinical response of the patient. In another pacemaker design, the (natural)
atrial contraction is detected and used to initiate the ventricular stimulus
[91]. Fifty-two years have passed since the first pacemaker was implanted in
a human patient. Today, the need for smaller, faster, and cheaper implanted
devices is more complex in nature, and much of the success of complex cir-
cuitry is due to multilayer assemblies in hybrid microelectronic systems
[92,93]. Figure 1.10 shows the anatomy of an implanted brain pacemaker used
for patients su¤ering from everything from Parkinson’s disease to obsessive-
compulsive disorder [94,95]. A part of this pacemaker circuitry is made possible
by modern hybrid circuit technology.

1.4.4 Telecommunications [32,37,96]

Telephone Networks For economic reasons, a two-wire circuit is used to con-
nect a subscriber to his or her central o‰ce, and central o‰ces are connected

Figure 1.10 Anatomy of a pacemaker: 1, power

pack; 2, implanted electrode [94]. (Courtesy of
John MacNeill.)
18 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.11 Assembled SCF circuit

[102]. (Reproduced with the express per-
mission of EXAR Corporation, Fre-
mont, California.)

using four-wire circuits to the outside world. For trunk calls over long dis-
tances, [3000 km (1860 miles) or more] a four-wire circuit is preferred because it
uses two separate unidirectional paths for signal transmission in both direc-
tions. To provide a perfect impedance match between a two-wire system and
a four-wire system, a hybrid microcircuit is placed in between. The hybrid cir-
cuit provides a perfect impedance match to the two-wire circuit by balancing
impedance so that the signal coming into the four-wire system is passed directly
to the two-wire circuit via a hybrid circuit, with no portion appearing in the
four-wire transmission path [97–100]. In addition to the hybrid microcircuit, a
typical echo reduction of about 40 dB is provided to eliminate the problem
generated when both subscribers are talking.

Switched Capacitor Filters Switched capacitor filters (SCFs) are penetrating

modern markets far beyond the telephone networks for which they were devel-
oped. They are now found in audio equipment, speech analyzers and recog-
nizers, test instruments, and musical instruments. Their precision, compactness,
and low cost make them preferable to discrete and hybrid filters as well as to
digital filters [101]. Figure 1.11 shows an SCF circuit, a new workhorse of the
hybrid family. SCFs consist of operational amplifiers, capacitors, switching
transistors, and passive analog filters. Passive analog filters—resistor–capacitor
networks—are implemented as discrete components or as thin or thick films
on ceramic substrates. They also do well where the application tolerates up to
1% imprecision in cuto¤ frequencies and passband amplitudes. If precision is
important, the designer must use either discrete components with precisely
known values or thick-film laser-trimmed resistors [102,103].

Directional Couplers Directional couplers provide a simple, low-cost method

of sampling and measuring power flow in an RF/microwave transmission path
[104,105]. The device is typically utilized as a three-port device; the fourth port,
termed the local port, must be connected to a matched resistive transmission.
 APPLICATIONS OF HYBRID MICROCIRCUITS 19

Figure 1.12 Directional coupler fabricated

and assembled by Mid-Atlantic RF Systems.
(Courtesy of Mid-Atlantic RF Systems, Forest
Hill, Maryland.)

The power limitations of this load are the determining factor in the power-
handling ability of the coupler. Thick-film fabrication enjoys the advantages of
low-cost construction and automated assembly procedures. The advantages
have caused thick-film circuit construction to become well established for low-
frequency and dc applications. The film technology, o¤ering improved micro-
strip [106] line definition, has been used extensively for fabricating circuits
at microwave frequencies. Thick-film hybrid microcircuits are also being used
increasingly at higher frequencies (e.g., in 3- and 10-GHz directional couplers)
[107]. Figure 1.12 shows a directional coupler based on hybrid microelectronic
thick- and thin-film technology.

1.4.5 Consumer Electronics

Handheld Calculators Hewlett-Packard’s handheld calculator (HP 18C and
HP 28C) is a multichip PCB hybrid [108]. No other packaging technology
except hybrid multilayer packaging circuits could meet the combined require-
ments of high pin count, low package profile, environmental stability, and
low cost [109] for such a small handheld calculator. The calculator is designed,
developed, and fabricated by Hewlett-Packard’s Northwest Integrated Circuit
Division in Oregon. This complex handheld calculator (Figure 1.13) has dou-
ble-sided PCB hybrids [110,111] with a total of 18 components. This hybrid
circuitry with the latest surface-mounting technology has provided a unique
opportunity to make this device as tiny as possible. The top of the board carries

Figure 1.13 Double-sided thick-film substrate

with surface-mounting component [20].
20 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.14 Portable transceiver circuit fab-

ricated on a low-temperature ceramic substrate.
(Courtesy of ST Microwave Corporation,
Chandler, Arizona.)

three ICs, which are epoxy die attached and connected by a total of 263 gold
wire bonds to gold-plated pads.

Portable Transceivers A wide range of portable transceiver products currently

operating from 10 MHz to 6 GHz, such as cellular phones, global positioning
satellite receivers, chordless phones [112–114], pagers, and wireless devices,
owe their existence to thick- and thin-film hybrid microcircuitry. As a matter
of fact, thick-film ceramic hybrid circuits have long been providing a high level
of integration, thereby reducing package size and improving reliability.
Figure 1.14 shows the circuit in a portable transceiver, fabricated on a low-
temperature ceramic substrate following thick- and thin-film hybrid circuit
technology.

1.4.6 Military Applications

Hybrid Power Packages Hybridization of high-power semiconductor chips
[115,116] has become necessity in many military applications because of relia-
bility and hermeticity requirements. It is an integral substrate package which
includes a hybrid full-wave rectifier designed to operate at 15 V with 20 A of
current flow and a power dissipation of 5.6 W. The boost provides high voltage
to a dc-to-dc converter from a 28-V input [117,118]. It also provides all boost
functions, including peak current control, startup-less power supply, high-speed
switching transistors with drivers, and an output rectifier diode. The operating
frequency is 80 Hz, and the maximum power output is 250 W. The hybridiza-
tion of this package has resulted in surface-area savings of 6 : 1 and overall
volume savings of 12 : 1. This was made possible by the new hybrid circuit
packaging concept [119].

High-Power, High-Frequency Amplifiers The AN/TPS-59 radar system [120,

121] developed by the General Electric System Division is a 100-W MIC
amplifier. It is built on an alumina substrate 3.5 in. (8.89 cm) long, 2 in.
 TYPICAL MICROELECTRONIC PRODUCTS 21

Figure 1.15 Circuit diagram of a hybrid

microcircuit on low-temperature ceramic sub-
strate and used in airborne radar. (Courtesy
of ST Microwave Corporation, Chandler,
Arizona.)

(5.08 cm) wide, and 0.025 in. (0.06 cm) thick with sixteen 0.060-in. (0.15-cm)-
diameter holes that are used for low-impedance ground connection of the thick-
film copper strip line. There are three large square holes for accommodating
beryllia-mounted microwave power transistor with their tuning networks [122].
The hybrid MIC amplifier has minimum size and weight, is rugged, and
provides very low thermal resistance for dissipating the considerable heat ema-
nating from microwave transistors. Furthermore, maintenance is easy, cost is
low, and the amplifier [123] meets the hermeticity requirements of MIL-STD-
883, providing reliable operation for maximum system availability [124].
Figure 1.15 shows the picture of an X-band airborne radar, fabricated on a
LTCC substrate following thick and thin film hybrid microcircuit technology.

1.5 TYPICAL MICROELECTRONIC PRODUCTS

1.5.1 Consumer Electronics

Cameras Panasonic’s Cool Shot II camera, developed and produced by
Matsusita-Kotobuki Electronics Industries in Japan, is a light, credit-card-sized
camera [35]. The substrate is a low-temperature cofired ceramic (LTCC) sub-
strate [125] with 10 dielectric and 11 conductive layers [126,127]. The conduc-
tive layers and chip resistors all belong to the thick-film hybrid family and the
materials are all from DuPont. This digital camera provides improved picture
quality and has been on the market since 1997. Figure 1.16 shows the Cool
Shot II camera following an LTCC multilayer interconnect [22].

Cellular Phones The RF amplifier circuit [128] for use in cellular phones
developed by Miyoshi Electronics in Japan is another hybrid microelectronics
application area. The size of this power amplifier for handheld wireless tele-
phones is less than 0.000488 in 3 (0.008 cm 3 ). The substrate is an LTCC mate-
22 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.16 Panasonic Cool Shot II digital camera [35]. (Courtesy of DuPont, Wil-
mington, Delaware.)

rial with conventional thick-film circuitry [129,130]. Figure 1.17 is the circuit of
a small cellular phone fabricated on an LTCC substrate. Hybrid microcircuit
technology has been used successfully to make this cellular phone small (palm
size), lightweight, and versatile.
The RF amplifier shown in Figure 1.18, a 2.1-GHz varactor-controlled
oscillator (VCO) with a 22-nH RF choke, a minimum Q value of 3, and a
ladder network consisting of inductors, capacitors, and resistors for matching
the impedance of the circuit used in such portable transceiver circuits, is fab-
ricated using thick-film hybrid technology. Laser-trimmed thick-film resistors
and capacitors are cost-e¤ective for high-volume, tight-tolerance applications.
The circuit complexity needed for miniaturization of these portable circuits has
been possible for hybrid microelectronic circuits. The additional circuit chips
are added to the circuit following surface-mounting technology [131–133].
To improve thermal conductivity, silver-based thermal via composition and
DuPont 6344 paste (ink) screen-printed to fill through–holes in conventional
alumina substrates are used to form high-thermal-conductivity paths to dis-
sipate heat. Fine lines of silver–platinum conductors form 5.9-mil (150-mm)

Figure 1.17 Inside circuit diagram of a small

cellular phone [35]. (Courtesy of DuPont, Wil-
mington, Delaware.)
 TYPICAL MICROELECTRONIC PRODUCTS 23

Figure 1.18 Thick-film power amplifier circuit

on alumina substrate for cellular phones [35].
(Courtesy of DuPont, Wilmington, Delaware.)

signal line with an 11.8-mil (300-mm) pitch, and DuPont’s QS87 series inks are
used for thick-film resistors [35]. Figure 1.19 shows the circuit of a VCO fab-
ricated using MMIC technology. The substrate can be LTCC or GaAs single
crystal.

Schoolchildren’s Knapsacks An Italian company has developed an innovative

product for mothers-to-be and schoolchildren. The company’s project team has
designed a roomy knapsack made of waterproofed nylon with a special rub-
berized pocket to house a flashing electroluminescent lamp (Figure 1.20). The
lamp is overlaid with tinted electroluminescent inks from DuPont screen-
printed on a 4.92-mil (125-mm)-thick polyester film. The knapsack has been
well received in the European and Mexican markets [35].

1.5.2 Industrial Applications

Supercomputers The performance of computer systems ranging from personal
computers to the highest-performance supercomputers [134] has been improv-
ing at explosive rates year after year [135–137]. Supercomputer technology
owes much to hybrid technology; special polyimide ceramic [138,139] sub-
strates and special conductor materials such as molybdenum, whose thermal
expansion coe‰cient closely matches that of silicon chips, are being used. New
packaging materials enhance the fatigue life of the associated chip-to-substrate

Figure 1.19 Circuit diagram of a VCO. (Cour-

tesy of ST Microwave Corporation, Chandler,
Arizona.)
24 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.20 Child’s knapsack built by an Italian company [35]. (Courtesy of DuPont,
Wilmington, Delaware.)

connections [140] and permit unprecedented packaging density. The NEX SX

supercomputer uses a multilayer ceramic substrate 3.94 by 3.94 by 0.1 in. (10
by 10 by 0.25 cm) thick and uses a tungsten layer for power distribution. It has
2177 I/O pins brazed on the bottom surface on a 0.1-in. (2.54-mm) staggered
grid. On top of this alumina substrate, four insulating polyimide layers and five
thin-film conductor layers are deposited. The chips are placed by the use of
flipped tape automated bonding (TAB). Thirty-six such chips are placed in a
high-density multichip package. This module achieves high speed and has a
high I/O count. The densely packed thin-film interconnections are placed on
low-dielectric-constant polyimide layers [141]. The alumina substrate with high
dielectric constant provides a large decoupling capacitance for power distribu-
tion and supports a high pin count [142].

Thermal Printheads Thermal printing, one of several forms of noncontact

printing, essentially carries a resistive heating pin head developed and fab-
ricated by Hewlett-Packard [143]. This high-speed scanning (122 characters
per second) pin head is sputter-deposited, and to optimize the resistive value
of the high-speed scanning pin head, fine-line structures are created by means
of photoetching [144]. Such high-speed scanning requires su‰cient heat dissi-
pation, which is achieved using a glazed mesa structure on an alumina sub-
strate. High performance coupled with low cost and convenience in high-speed
noncontact printing is made possible through thin-film hybrid technology.

Cryogenic Infrared Imaging Arrays [145] The outstanding versatility of thick-

film hybrid technology is demonstrated by the development of a butted five-
chip shortwave infrared focal plane with 2560 pixels
2 spectral bands oper-
ating at 125k [146]. Thick-film screen printing technology is adopted to print
insulators and conductors on silicon substrate. For added reliability, and to
reduce parasitic capacitance to the silicon substrate, two layers of passivation
glaze are also screen printed. To form an interconnect pattern, first gold con-
 TYPICAL MICROELECTRONIC PRODUCTS 25

Figure 1.21 Velocity and position deception module [20].

ductor is screen-printed and fired, followed by a double print and fired multi-
layer dielectric, which survives repeated thermal shock immersion in liquid
nitrogen. For infrared arrays, the precise mounting relationship is maintained
for an assembly room ambient to cryogenic operational temperature. The focal
plane is fabricated with a polysilicon substrate plane to minimize thermal
expansion mismatch.

1.5.3 Military and Aerospace Applications

Velocity and Position Deception Modules The velocity and position deception
module (VPDM) is a sophisticated RF input network and receiver housed in
an alumina module used in military fighter aircraft that integrates a variety
of RF/microwave hybrid microstrip [147] subassemblies, including seven cus-
tom multicavity circuits. As enemy radar is detected, the VPDM processes and
transmits amplitude- and frequency-shifted pulses across a broad spectrum up
to 18 GHz [148]. Figure 1.21 shows a VPDM housed in an alumina module.

DC-to-DC Converters [149] A 50-W triple-output dc-to-dc converter is shown

in Figure 1.22. The 28-V input supplies two isolated outputs: þ15.0 V, 500 mA
and þ5.0 V, 7.0 A. The power supply is designed for military and aerospace
applications. The circuit includes a number of magnetic components and
capacitors common to a power circuit [148].

Hybrid Silicon Carbide Di¤erential Amplifiers Applications of high-tempera-

ture electronics (175 to 600 C) include instrumentation for jet aircraft engines,
nuclear reactors, geothermal wells, automotive underhood electronics, and space-
based power systems [150]. The hybrid di¤erential amplifier [151] uses 6-H
silicon carbide substrate using both dielectric isolation and bonded wafer tech-
nology and silicon monolithic devices. The gain ratio of this amplifier is more
26 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.22 (a) Isolated DC/DC converter; (b) non-isolated DC/DC converter.
(Reprinted with permission from ISHM/IMAPS, Washington, DC.)

than 60 dB, the common-mode rejection ratio is greater than 55 dB, and the
o¤set voltage varies from 139 to 159 mV over the entire range [152]. This hy-
brid circuit can operate at 350 C, which is not possible for integrated mono-
lithic circuits built on a silicon wafer or PCB.

1.5.4 Automotive Industry

Automotive Fan Speed Controllers Thick-film hybrid circuits are finding high-
volume circuit applications in fan-speed-control modules in automobiles, where
performance and cost are extremely important [153]. The circuit uses a thick-
film laser-trimmed resistor. The resistor circuit uses DuPont 6800 series resistor
 TYPICAL MICROELECTRONIC PRODUCTS 27

Figure 1.23 Hybrid circuit module used in the

speed controller system of a fan inside the
engine of an automobile [35]. (Courtesy of
DuPont, Wilmington, Delaware.)

compositions, a 6160 silver conductor, and a QS580 encapsulant (Figure 1.23).

The ceramic substrate that carries the hybrid microcircuit is attached to a
heat sink. The master module is capable of dissipating heat at a rate of about
15 W/cm 2 . This hybrid microcircuit module is rugged and can withstand harsh
environmental conditions: high temperatures, rapid temperature changes, re-
peated thermal cycles, vibration, corrosive gases, solvents, salt spray, and high
humidity.

1.5.5 Microwave Engineering [154,155]

When two unshielded transmission lines are close together, power can be cou-
pled between the lines due to interaction of the electromagnetic fields of each
line. Such lines, called coupled transmission lines, usually consist of three con-
ductors in close proximity. The coupling in a coupled line coupler is too loose
to accommodate coupling factors of 3 or 6 dB. One way to increase coupling
between edge-coupled lines is to have several lines parallel to each other, so
that the fringing fields at both edges of a line contribute to the coupling. Prob-
ably the most practical implementation of this idea is the Lange coupler
[156,157] (Figure 1.24), which is more compact than simpler two-line designs
and provides a better coupling factor and good isolation. Recently, circuit
processing technology has utilized a thick-film process with DuPont’s Fodel
6050 dielectric ink to eliminate wire bonds in Lange couplers, to reduce induc-
tance, improve coupling and repeatability, and lower the overall cost [35].

Figure 1.24 Circuit diagram of a Lange cou-

pler [35]. (Courtesy of DuPont, Wilmington,
Delaware.)
28 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.25 Amitech’s MCM module [35].

(Courtesy of DuPont, Wilmington, Delaware.)

1.5.6 Multichip Modules

Multichip modules (MCMs) can be defined as high-density interconnections of
multiple chips (may be discrete or deposited or both), including ICs nested on
a single substrate, which may be a single crystal of silicon or gallium
arsenide or polycrystalline ceramics or glass-filled epoxy laminate [158–159].
Figure 1.25 shows an MCM circuit fabricated by Amitech, based in Roros,
Norway. This circuit consists of five layers of insulation 17 by 17 mm 2 housed
in a ceramic substrate. The circuit is made with DuPont’s QM silver multilayer
system.
MCMs are very diverse; they may be small, nonhermetic commercial circuits
(camcorders or cellular phones). They may be large, hermetic military circuits,
such as a standard electronics module, E-size, SEM-E, for a naval system, or
SAM, for a standard avionics module. MCMs belong to the hybrid microcir-
cuit family, and the two have many things in common [160,161]. An MCM,
however, uses a variety of substrates according to the family to which it
belongs. According to the processes and assembly requirements, the MCM
family is divided into three categories: MCM-L (multichip module laminated),
MCM-D (multichip module deposited), and MCM-C (multichip module
ceramic). MCMs minimize chip spacing and reduce inductive and capacitive
discontinuities between chips mounted on the substrate by replacing the die–
wire bond–pin–board–pin path with a much superior die–bump–interconnect–
bump–die path. In addition, narrower and shorter wires on the ceramic sub-
strate have much lower capacitance values than do PCB interconnections
[162,163].
Researchers from Fraunhofer IBM in Berlin, IMEC in Leuven, Belgium,
and the Universities of Bonn and Wuppertal in Germany have used thin-film
techniques with copper in benzocyclobutane set on a depleted silicon wafer to
create MCM substrate [56]. This technique is used to make a detector module
for an experiments using the planned large hadron collider at CERN in Geneva
[57].
 REFERENCES 29

1.6 SUMMARY

Thick- and thin-film systems are used in all facets of today’s electronic industry,
starting with applications in the computer and defense industries. As the state
of the art has grown, composition suppliers broadened their lines, developing
new high-performance materials to meet changing and sophisticated circuitry.
The present hybrid microcircuit technology o¤ers the advantages of simple
processing, a fast and inexpensive tooling system, economy, tolerance-active
devices, high reliability, and multilevel circuit capabilities. As a result, virtually
all sectors of the electrical and electronic industries are turning to solid-state
systems which utilize thick- and thin-film hybrid microcircuitry. Increasingly,
thick- and thin-film hybrid microcircuits are finding a place in microwave and
wideband applications because of their low cost in volume production, reduced
parasitics, high power dissipation and the development of processing terms of
line definition, and crossovers. In an e¤ort to deliver highly reliable products in
a period when microelectronics devices and technologies have been changing
rapidly, accurate reliability prediction techniques must be established. The
failure prediction model must use novel materials, manufacturing processes,
testing, environmental stress screening, application criteria, parametric stresses
and drafting, and thermal and environmental elements.
Although hybrid technology accommodates an appreciable amount of flexi-
bility in design methodology, assembly techniques, and to realize a wide variety
of electronic functions, it is not the least expansive circuit technology. More-
over, there is a cost penalty associated with reduced size, weight, and unique
performance. However, it is vitally important that the cost impact of circuit
design and fabrication design techniques be considered carefully because the
ultimate cost of a hybrid circuit may play a key role in its lifetime. Although
cost premiums may initially be justified, value-engineering considerations at the
electronic system level should address replacement costs. Automation in the
design and manufacture of hybrid microcircuits will continue to drive down
overall computer-aided design and computer-automated manufacturing costs.
Thus computerized testing of hybrids will ultimately reduce the costs of hybrid
circuits. The most recent technology in hybrid microcircuitry is the multichip
module.

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3. M. L. Topfer, Thick-Film Microelectronic Fabrication Design and Application, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1971.
30 INTRODUCTION

4. R. Glang and L. V. Gregor, Generation of patterns in thin films, in Handbook of

Thin-Film Technology, 2nd ed., L. I. Maissel and R. Glang, eds., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1983, Chap. 7.
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New York, 1987, Chap. 4.
6. J. Millman and C. C. Halkais, eds., Integrated Electronics: Analog and Digital
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7. T. K. Gupta, Aluminum alloy as an interconnecting material in the fabrication of
integrated circuits, Micron. Reliab., Vol. 19, 1979, p. 337.
8. T. W. Mayer and S. S. Lau, eds., Electronic Materials Science for Integrated Cir-
cuits in Si and GaAs, Macmillan, New York, 1990, p. 284.
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10. P. R. Gray and R. G. Mayer, eds., Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Cir-
cuits, 3rd ed., Wiley, New York, 1993, p. 111.
11. S. Wolf and R. N. Tauber, eds., Silicon Processing: VLSI Era, Vol. 1, Lattice
Press, Sunset Beach, CA, 1986.
12. World News, Solid State Technol., Dec. 1998, p. 20.
13. C. Cohen and M. T. Sih, Packaging and interconnections of integrated circuits, in
Electronic Packaging and Interconnection Handbook, 3rd ed., C. A. Harper, ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2000, Chap. 7.
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Interconnection Handbook, 3rd ed., C. A. Harper, ed., McGraw-Hill, New York,
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16. D. D. Zimmerman and J. R. Dinitto, eds., Hybrid Microcircuit Design Guide, Joint
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