MODULE 3: Aircraft Propulsion

October 6, 2025
MODULE 3: Aircraft Propulsion

▶ Evolution of Aircraft Propulsion

▶ Illustration of working of gas turbine engine
▶ Comparison of Ideal & Actual Brayton Cycle
▶ Working principle and characteristics of Turbojet
▶ Working principle and characteristics of Turboprop
▶ Working principle and characteristics of Turbofan
▶ Working principle and characteristics of Ramjet
▶ Working principle and characteristics of Scramjet engines.
▶ Textbook-1: Ch9, Textbook–2: Ch6
Evolution of Aircraft Propulsion

Era Propulsion Type Example Key Advancement

1799–1870s Paddles, Steam Cayley, Mozhaiski First powered concepts
1880s–1903 Hot-air, Steam Du Temple Limited flight attempts
1903–1945 Reciprocating + Propeller Wright Flyer, WWII planes Controlled flight, speed growth
1930s–1950s Turbojet, Turbofan He 178, Me 262 Supersonic jet flight
1940s–Present Rocket V-2, Apollo Space exploration
Present–Future Advanced Propulsion Ion, Nuclear, Solar Sail Deep space missions
Propulsion Evolution (Part 1)
▶ 1799–1870s — Paddles, Steam
Examples: George Cayley, Mozhaiski
Key Point: First attempts at powered flight with mechanical or
steam systems. No sustained flight.

▶ 1880s–1903 — Hot-air, Steam

Example: Felix du Temple
Key Point: Brief lift-offs, no control or sustained flight. Still used
heavy steam engines.

▶ 1903–1945 — Reciprocating + Propeller

Examples: Wright Flyer, WWII piston aircraft
Key Point: Controlled, powered flight with internal combustion
engines and propellers. Speed and range improved.

▶ 1930s–1950s — Turbojet, Turbofan

Examples: Heinkel He 178, Me 262
Key Point: Jet engines enabled higher speeds, altitudes, and
supersonic flight.
Propulsion Evolution (Part 2)

▶ 1940s–Present — Rocket
Examples: V-2 rocket, Apollo missions
Key Point: Rockets carry fuel and oxidizer, enabling space travel
and satellite deployment.

▶ Present–Future — Advanced Propulsion

Examples: Ion engines, nuclear propulsion, solar sails
Key Point: High-efficiency systems for deep space travel. Produce
low but continuous thrust.
Gas Turbine Engine Overview

▶ A gas turbine uses pressurized gas to spin a turbine for electricity

generation or propulsion (airplanes, jets).
▶ The operating cycle is called the Brayton cycle.
▶ Fuel (natural gas, kerosene, jet fuel) burns to produce hot
expanding gas, which drives the turbine.
▶ The turbine extracts energy from the hot gas to perform useful
work.
Main Components of a Gas Turbine Engine

▶ Compressor: Draws in air and compresses it, increasing

pressure (up to 30x intake pressure).
▶ Combustor: Burns fuel injected into the high-pressure air,
producing high temperature and velocity gas.
▶ Turbine: Extracts energy from hot gases to spin the
compressor and output shaft, producing power.
Gas Turbine Engine

Source: [Link]
Gas Turbine Engine

Source: [Link]
Ideal Brayton Cycle

▶ The Brayton cycle is the ideal

cycle for gas turbine engines.
▶ Consists of four processes:
1. 1-2: Isentropic
compression (compressor)
2. 2-3: Constant pressure
heat addition (combustor)
3. 3-4: Isentropic expansion
(turbine)
4. 4-1: Constant pressure
heat rejection (exhaust)
▶ The cycle assumes no losses —
reversible and adiabatic
compression and expansion.
Actual Brayton Cycle and Deviations from Ideal
▶ Real gas turbines experience irreversibilities and losses, including:
▶ Non-isentropic compression and expansion (efficiencies < 1)
▶ Pressure losses in the combustor and piping
▶ Heat losses to surroundings
▶ The actual cycle’s temperature-entropy diagram shows entropy
increases during compression and expansion.
▶ These losses reduce thermal efficiency and output power.
Comparison of Ideal & Actual Brayton Cycle
Aspect Ideal Brayton Cy- Actual Brayton Cycle
cle
Compression Process Isentropic (re- Non-isentropic (entropy
versible, no entropy increases due to losses)
change)
Expansion Process Isentropic (re- Non-isentropic (entropy
versible) increases)

Heat Addition Constant pressure, Constant pressure with

no pressure loss pressure drop

Efficiency Maximum theoreti- Reduced efficiency due

cal efficiency to irreversibilities

Pressure Losses None Present in combustor,

ducts, and components

Turbine 100% efficient Efficiency < 100% due

to friction and mechan-
ical losses

Compressor 100% efficient Efficiency < 100%

Turbojet

Source: [Link]
Turbojet Engine: Working Principle and Characteristics

1. Air Intake: Air enters the engine at flight velocity V∞ .

2. Diffuser: Air slows down, increasing static pressure
(isentropic compression).
3. Compressor: Air is further compressed, raising pressure and
temperature.
4. Combustion: Fuel burns at constant pressure, increasing
temperature and volume.
5. Turbine: Expanding gases drive the turbine, powering the
compressor.
6. Nozzle: Gases expand and accelerate, producing thrust
T = ṁair (Ve − V∞ ).
Turbojet Engine:Characteristics

▶ High efficiency at high subsonic and supersonic speeds.

▶ Produces high exhaust velocity Ve relative to flight velocity.
▶ Simple design without fans or propellers.
▶ Low propulsive efficiency and high fuel consumption at low
speeds.
▶ Thrust roughly constant with speed at subsonic flight;
decreases with altitude.
▶ Suited for high-altitude, high-speed flight conditions.
High Efficiency at High Speeds

Turbojets are most efficient when flying at high subsonic to

supersonic speeds (typically above Mach 0.8).

The engine’s design accelerates exhaust gases to very high

velocities, matching well with high-speed flight.

At these speeds, the large velocity difference between exhaust and

incoming air efficiently produces thrust.
High Exhaust Velocity

Turbojets accelerate a relatively small mass of air to very high

speeds.

Thrust is generated from the large velocity difference between

exhaust velocity Ve and flight speed V∞ .

This is effective at high speeds but inefficient at low speeds, where

excess energy is wasted accelerating the exhaust.
Simple Design

Compared to turbofan or turboprop engines, turbojets have a

mechanically simpler design.

They lack large fans or propellers, reducing weight and

maintenance complexity.

However, this simplicity limits versatility in performance.

Low Propulsive Efficiency at Low Speeds

At low flight speeds, exhaust velocity Ve is much higher than flight

velocity V∞ .

This causes a lot of energy to be wasted accelerating a small air

mass to speeds much greater than the aircraft’s.

Resulting in poor fuel economy and low thrust efficiency.

High Specific Fuel Consumption

Turbojets consume more fuel per unit thrust compared to

turbofans.

Because they accelerate a smaller air mass to very high velocity,

they have higher operating costs and shorter range at lower speeds.
Thrust Variation with Speed and Altitude

▶ At subsonic speeds, thrust remains roughly constant because

increased air mass flow offsets decreased velocity difference.
▶ Thrust decreases with altitude due to lower air density ρ∞ ,
reducing mass flow.
Best Suited for High-Altitude, High-Speed Flight

Turbojets are optimized for thin, high-altitude air where they

maintain high airflow velocity and pressure ratios.

This makes them ideal for military jets and supersonic aircraft.

They are less efficient and less suitable for low-speed or

low-altitude operations.
Schematic diagram showing the operation of a turboprop
engine

Source: [Link]
 GE T64 turboprop, with the propeller on the left, the
gearbox with accessories in the middle, and the gas
generator (turbine) on the right

Source:[Link]
Working Principle: Turboprop Engine
1. Air Intake: Air enters the engine at flight velocity V∞ .
2. Diffuser: Air slows down in the diffuser, increasing static
pressure.
3. Compressor: Air is compressed to a higher pressure and
temperature.
4. Combustion: Fuel is burned at constant pressure, increasing
gas temperature and volume.
5. Turbine: Hot gases expand through the turbine, extracting
work.
6. Power Transmission: Most turbine power drives a shaft
connected to a propeller.
7. Propeller: Converts shaft power to thrust by accelerating a
large mass of air at relatively low velocity.
8. Exhaust: Remaining gases exit the nozzle at lower velocity,
producing minor additional thrust.
Characteristics of Turboprop Engines

▶ High Propulsive Efficiency at Low to Medium Speeds

▶ Good Fuel Efficiency at low speeds
▶ Effective at Low to Medium Altitudes
▶ Complex Mechanical Design
▶ Lower Maximum Speed
▶ Versatility
High Propulsive Efficiency at Low to Medium Speeds

Turboprops accelerate a large mass of air at relatively low velocity,

yielding high propulsive efficiency especially at speeds below about
Mach 0.6.
Good Fuel Efficiency at Lower Speeds

Because most thrust is produced by the propeller moving a large

air mass efficiently, turboprops offer better fuel economy than
turbojets at low to medium speeds.
Effective at Low and Medium Altitudes

Turboprops are well suited for operations at low to medium

altitudes where air density is higher, supporting propeller thrust
generation.

1. Propeller Thrust Depends on Air Density:

▶ Thrust is directly related to the mass of air accelerated.
▶ Higher air density = more air molecules per volume.
▶ At low to medium altitudes, denser air allows the propeller to accelerate a larger
mass of air.

2. Effect on Propeller Efficiency:

▶ Propellers generate thrust by accelerating air backward.
▶ Higher air density means greater aerodynamic forces on blades.
▶ At high altitudes, lower air density reduces propeller effectiveness due to fewer
air molecules.
Complex Mechanical Design

Turboprops have more complex mechanical systems than turbojets

due to the shaft and gearboxes connecting the turbine to the
propeller.
Lower Maximum Speed

Propeller efficiency decreases as aircraft speed approaches

transonic regimes (Mach 0.6–0.8), limiting turboprop maximum
speed compared to turbojets.

▶ Compressibility effects:
At speeds near Mach 0.6–0.8, propeller blade tips approach the speed of sound,
causing shock waves that increase drag and reduce aerodynamic efficiency.
▶ Increased drag and loss of lift:
Shock waves create wave drag and airflow disturbances, lowering the propeller’s
ability to generate thrust effectively.
▶ Structural and mechanical limits:
To prevent supersonic blade tip speeds, propeller rotational speed is limited,
which restricts thrust generation at high aircraft speeds.
▶ Vapour Cone:
Shock waves create the rapid pressure drops. These pressure drops cause
condensation of moisture, resulting in the white funnel (vapor cone)
Versatility

Turboprops are commonly used for regional airliners, cargo planes,

and military transports due to their efficiency at moderate speeds
and good short-field performance.
What is a Turbofan Engine?

▶ A turbofan combines the turbojet core with a large ducted fan.

▶ The fan is mounted ahead of the compressor and driven by
the turbine.
▶ Two airflows:
▶ Core flow: passes through combustion and exhaust.
▶ Bypass flow: passes around the core via the fan duct.
▶ Thrust = Jet exhaust + Fan (bypass air).
How a Turbofan Works

1. Air enters the fan; split into core and bypass flows.
2. Core air enters the compressor → combustion → turbine.
3. Turbine powers both compressor and fan.
4. Bypass air exits at lower speed, producing efficient thrust.
Bypass Ratio and Efficiency

▶ Bypass Ratio = mass flow of bypass air / core air.

▶ High bypass ratio → more efficient thrust at lower jet
velocities.
▶ Modern turbofans have bypass ratios > 5:1 or even > 10:1.
▶ Lower noise and better fuel economy.
Fuel Efficiency (TSFC)

▶ TSFC = Thrust-Specific Fuel Consumption.

▶ Measures how much fuel is burned per pound of thrust per
hour.
▶ Typical values:
▶ Turbojet: ~1.0 lb/(lbf·hr)
▶ Turbofan: ~0.6 lb/(lbf·hr)
▶ Turbofan engines are more efficient at subsonic speeds.
Why Use Turbofans?

▶ Better fuel efficiency than turbojets.

▶ Lower noise levels due to slower bypass air.
▶ Ideal for subsonic commercial aviation (e.g., Boeing 747,
Airbus A320).
▶ Good balance of thrust and efficiency.
Turbofan: Key Characteristics

Feature Turbofan Engine

Thrust Source Jet + Fan (Bypass Air)
Efficiency High (especially at subsonic speeds)
TSFC 0.6 lb/(lbf·hr)
Bypass Ratio Typically >5:1
Applications Commercial Jets, Military Transports
Example: Pratt & Whitney JT9D

▶ One of the first high-bypass turbofan engines.

▶ Powered early Boeing 747 aircraft.
▶ Demonstrated the advantages of fan-based thrust.
Ramjet
What is a Ramjet?

▶ A jet engine with no moving parts.

▶ Operates by ramming air into the engine at high speed.
▶ Consists of:
▶ Diffuser: Slows and compresses incoming air.
▶ Combustor: Injects and burns fuel at constant pressure.
▶ Nozzle: Expands hot gases to generate thrust.
Key Features

▶ Efficient at supersonic speeds (Mach 3–4).

▶ Simpler and lighter than turbojets (no compressor/turbine).
▶ Used in missiles and high-speed test vehicles.
Limitations

▶ Cannot produce thrust at zero or low speed.

▶ Inefficient at subsonic speeds.
▶ Thermal limits due to high diffuser temperatures.
▶ Requires an initial boost (rocket or secondary engine).
Thermodynamic Summary

▶ Diffuser: Isentropic compression (p1 → p2 )

▶ Combustion: Constant pressure (p2 = p3 )
▶ Nozzle: Isentropic expansion (p3 → p4 )
▶ Compression ratio (ideal):
( ) γ
p2 γ−1 2 γ−1
≈ 1+ M∞
p1 2
Conclusion

▶ Ramjets are ideal for high-speed atmospheric flight.

▶ Simplicity and high thrust-to-weight ratio are key benefits.
▶ Limitations at low speeds and high temperatures must be
managed.
Scramjet
What is a SCRAMJET?

▶ Stands for Supersonic Combustion Ramjet.

▶ Airflow remains supersonic throughout the engine, including
combustion.
▶ Designed for hypersonic speeds (Mach 5 and above).
▶ No moving parts; uses shock waves and vehicle shape for
compression.
Key Features

▶ Supersonic combustion avoids extremely high diffuser

temperatures.
▶ Allows efficient operation at very high Mach numbers (> 5).
▶ Uses hydrogen or other fuels injected directly into supersonic
airflow.
▶ Typically integrated into the airframe (e.g., underside of
hypersonic aircraft).
Advantages Over Ramjets

▶ Avoids thermal limits caused by subsonic combustion.

▶ No turbine temperature constraints — combustion
temperatures can be higher.
▶ Enables sustained hypersonic flight, crucial for future
spaceplanes and hypersonic transports.
Challenges and Research

▶ Supersonic combustion is difficult to stabilize and control.

▶ Fuel injection and mixing in supersonic airflow is complex.
▶ Active area of research (e.g., NASA Langley’s
airframe-integrated SCRAMjet concept).
Summary

▶ SCRAMJETs extend jet propulsion to hypersonic speeds.

▶ Overcome ramjet thermal limits by maintaining supersonic
flow in combustor.
▶ Critical technology for next-generation aerospace vehicles.