UNIT – 1 iii. It should create new knowledge that is generally applicable.

iv. It is creative process to develop better understanding of mankind, social and cultural
Research is an activity that leads us to finding new facts, information, assisting us in and economical issues.
verifying the available knowledge and in making us question things that are difficult to v. It should be useful to others who wish to apply the findings in developing new
understand as per existing data. policies or applications of findings of a research in the benefit of public.
It may be understood in following terms:
 Research is a continuous activity in majority of disciplines and professions. HOW TO ENSURE A GOOD QUALITY RESEARCH?
 It is helpful in critical assessment of the way we work, execute policies, and give 1. Purpose should be clearly defined.
instructions in our professions. 2. Common concepts should be used that can be understood by all.
 It is systematic observation of processes to find better ways to do things and to reduce 3. Research procedures should be explained in detail.
the effort being put in to achieve an objective and identifying the validity of the 4. Research design should be carefully planned.
targets. 5. Researcher should declare all the possible errors and their possible impact on findings.
 In fact research is a subconscious activity that we are involved in at all times whether 6. Analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal significance.
it is purchase of daily use articles, a car, an electronic good or planning a holiday. 7. The methods of analysis should be appropriate.
8. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
MEANING OF RESEARCH: 9. The researcher should good command over research methodologies and should be
Research is a process to discover new knowledge to find answers to a question. intelligent and experienced.

 "All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads 10. Ethics in research refers to a code of conduct of behavior while conducting research.

to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention" is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of Ethical conduct applies to the organization and the members that sponsor the research, the

which the significance of research can well be understood. researchers who undertake the research, and the respondents who provide them with the

 Clifford Woody states that research comprises defining and redefining problems, necessary data.

formulation of hypothesis; collection, organizing and evaluation of data; and reaching

conclusions. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
 D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences Research Characteristics of research determine whether a research is free of biases, prejudices, and
define research as "The manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose subjective errors or not.
of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in 1. Generalized.
construction of theory or in the practice of an art." 2. Controlled.
3. Rigorous.
Research may have certain other qualities such as: 4. Empirical.
i. It is a prearranged / structured enquiry (a formal step by step method or sequence to 5. Systematic
take up research activity is developed to ensure correctness of data and validity of 6. Reliability.
processes). 7. Validity.
ii. It utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems 8. Employs hypothesis
9. Analytical & Accuracy.  Objectives in undertaking the research
10. Credibility.  Inquiry mode employed for research
11. Critical
1. Classification based on Application:
1. Generalised: The researcher usually divides the identified population into smaller samples a. Pure / Basic / Fundamental Research: As the term suggests a research activity taken up to
depending on the resource availability at the time of research being conducted. look into some aspects of a problem or an issue for the first time is termed as basic or pure.
2. Controlled: The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two b. Applied / Decisional Research: Applied research is done on the basis of pure or
variables (factors), you set up your study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors fundamental research to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation,
affecting the relationship. administration and understanding of a phenomenon.
3. Rigorous: One must be careful in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to Key Differences between Basic and Applied Research
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. a) Basic Research can be explained as research that tries to expand the already existing
4. Empirical: The processes adopted should be tested for the accuracy and each step should scientific knowledge base. On the contrary, applied research is used to mean the scientific
be coherent in progression. This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon firm data study that is helpful in solving real-life problems.
gathered from information collected from real life experiences or observations. b) While basic research is purely theoretical, applied research has a practical approach.
5. Systematic: The procedure or process being developed to undertake a study should be c) The applicability of basic research is greater than the applied research, in the sense that the
carefully drafted to ensure that resources utilization is optimized. former is universally applicable whereas the latter can be applied only to the specific
6. Reliability: This is the degree to which the result of a measurement, calculation, or problem, for which it was carried out.
specification can be depended on to be accurate. d) The primary concern of the basic research is to develop scientific knowledge and
7. Validity & Verifiability: It is the extent to which a concept, conclusion or measurement is predictions. On the other hand, applied research stresses on the development of technology
well-founded and likely corresponds accurately to the real world. and technique with the help of basic science.
8. Employs Hypothesis: Any research definitely begins with formulation of a hypothesis. e) The fundamental goal of the basic research is to add some knowledge to the already
9. Analytical & Accurate: A research should be focussed not only about what is happening existing one. Conversely, applied research is directed towards finding a solution to the
but also on how and why a particular phenomenon, process draws certain conclusions. problem under consideration.
10. Credibility: The extent to which an analysis of finding can be treated to be trustworthy is 2. Classification based on Objectives:
termed as credibility. a. Descriptive Research: This attempts to explain a situation, problem, phenomenon, service
11. Critical: Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a or programme, or provides information viz. living condition of a community, or describes
research enquiry. attitudes towards an issue but this is done systematically.
b. Co relational Research: This is a type of non-experimental research method, in which a
TYPES OF RESEARCH researcher measures two variables, understands and assesses the statistical relationship

Research can be classified into various categories depending on the perspective under which between them with no influence from any extraneous variable.

the research activity is initiated and conducted. The categorization depends on the following c. Explanatory: is the research whose primary purpose is to explain why events occur, to

perspectives in general: build, elaborate, extend or test a theory.

 Application of research study d. Exploratory Research: Exploration has been the human kind‘s passion since the time
immemorial. In the subjective terms exploratory research is conducted to find a solution for a
problem that has not been studied more clearly, intended to establish priorities, develop • It is also known as experimental research as it is essential to get facts firsthand, at their
operational definitions and improve the final research design. source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired
information.
3. Classification based on Inquiry Mode:
a. Structured approach: The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
research. Here everything that forms the research process objectives, design, sample, and the
questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined. “Method” plainly means a particular procedure for accomplishing or approaching something,
b. Unstructured approach: The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as especially a systematic or established one.
qualitative research. This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process. It • Hence, methodology can be understood as a set of specific procedures or techniques used to
is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without identify, select, process, and analyze information about a topic.
quantifying it. • It is the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study. It
comprises the theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a
OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH branch of knowledge.
(i) Descriptive v/s Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact finding • It is important to decide the methods of data collection would be qualitative or quantitative
enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the before the research begins.
state of affairs as it exists at any given time. In analytical research, on the other hand, the • Process of research addresses two major questions i.e. what is to be found and how it is be
researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a found.
critical evaluation of the material. • The steps involved in finding responses to the research questions comprise research
(ii) Applied v/s Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or methodology.
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization, whereas FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a
According to Bryman, Alan (2007); A research problem is a definite or clear expression
theory.
[statement] about an area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be
(iii) Quantitative v/s Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
existing practice that points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
investigation.
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.
Some sources of Research Problems may be identified as follows:
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is associated to some theoretical idea(s)
 Personal Experiences
or presupposition and is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts
 Media: Documentation done on various issues, live coverage, panel discussions etc.
or to get a better understanding of an existing concept in practice.
 Resources: Literature such as books, journals, news articles, periodicals etc may
• On the other hand, Empirical research draws together the data based on experience or
facilitate the researcher to identify a relevant problem based on the area of interest.
observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory.
• It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified
by observation or experiment.
  Government / Official Records: The orders passed by government. The decisions  Disadvantage: material is not completely up to date, as it can take a few years
given in various cases by courts, the petitions and surveys conducted become between the completion of a work and publication in the form of a book.
important sources to shortlist finer prints in abrader problem.  JOURNALS: Journals provide the most up-to-date information, even though there
may be a gap of few years between the completion of a research project and its
Important Considerations in Selecting a Research Problem: publication in a journal. Similar to the referred books, you need to prepare a list of
1. Persuasive Topic: The problem that is taken up for research should not only be of ample journals for identifying literature relevant to the study.
interest to the researcher but also the one that is continuously motivating to ensure consistent
efforts to find a solution. b) Review the literature chosen:
2. Viability: A problem that has been identified to be studied should be decide on the basis The selected literature has to be critically studied and examines to derive associations
of whether it is actually possible to be resolved , or has some previous know how to guide the between the problem being studied and themes discussed in the works done earlier. Read
researcher to move ahead. critically with particular reference to the following aspects:
3. The So What Test: A research problem should be able to pass the “So What” test as in • Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework is confirmed beyond
social researches, to ascertain the meaningfulness and relevance of studying a particular doubt.
problem. • Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the methodologies
adopted and the criticisms of them.
PROCESS OF FORMULATION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM • Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other situations. Ascertain the

1. Developing a Conceptual Framework: The researcher has to conceptualize, identify and areas in which little or nothing is known-the gaps that exist in the body of knowledge.
select a broad discipline before short listing the final aspects to be studied. c) Develop a theoretical framework:

2. Referring the available literature on the problem: An extensive literature reference is A theoretical framework consists of concepts and, together with their definitions and

necessary to find out the available information about the identified problem. reference to relevant scholarly literature, existing theory that is used for a particular study.

3. The formulation of Objectives: The objectives provide an accurate description of the

specific actions you will take in order to reach the aim. An objective is measurable and A strong theoretical framework has the following advantages:

operational. 1. The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge

2. A clear statement of theoretical assumptions allows the reader to evaluate them critically.

2. PROCEDURE FOR REVIEWING THE LITERATURE: 3. A relevant theory provides a basis for the hypotheses and choice of research methods.

a) Explore the available literature: 4. A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest.

To effectively search for literature in the field of enquiry, it is imperative that there is at least 5. It highlights the need to inspect how these key variables might be at variance and under
some idea of broad subject area and of the problem that is to be investigated in order to set what conditions.

parameters for your search. It is followed by compilation of a bibliography for this broad area 6. It addresses the important questions of why and how.

via books, periodicals and journals. 7. It permits the researcher to intellectually switch from simply describing a phenomenon
 BOOKS: The books encompass central part of any bibliography. being observed to generalizing the varied aspects of that phenomenon.

 Advantage: material published generally is of good quality and the findings are 8. Having a theory helps you identify the limits to the generalizations.

integrated with other research to form a coherent body of knowledge.

TYPES OF LITERATURE:  Dictionaries
 Primary Literature: Primary sources means original study, based on direct  Histories

observation, use of statistical records, interviews, or experimental methods, of actual  Journal articles (depending on the discipline, these can be primary)

practices or the actual impact of practices or policies.  Magazine and newspaper articles (this distinction varies by discipline)

 Printed Literature Sources:  Monographs, other than fiction and autobiography

 Diaries  Textbooks (also considered tertiary)

 Letters  Websites (also considered primary)

 Speeches  Tertiary Literature: Tertiary literature consists of a distillation and collection of

 Patents primary and secondary sources such as textbooks, encyclopaedia articles, and

 Photographs guidebooks or handbooks.

 Newspaper articles In writing about such information you should start with the general information,
 Journal articles gradually narrowing down to the specific.

 Theses and dissertations  Chronologies

 Survey Research (e.g., market surveys, public opinion polls)  Classifications

 Electronic Sources of Literature  Dictionaries

 Internet  Encyclopaedias

 E-mail communication  Directories

 Interviews (e.g., telephone, e-mail)  Guidebooks and manuals

 Video recordings (e.g. television programs)  Population registers statistics

 Audio recordings (e.g. radio programs)  Fact books

 Web sites  Abstracts
 Communications through social networking applications (e.g. Face book, blogs,  Indexes

RSS, U-tube etc.)  Bibliographies

 Secondary Literature: Secondary literature consists of interpretations and  Manuals/Guide books

evaluations that are derived from or refer to the primary source literature. Examples
include review articles (such as meta-analysis and systematic reviews) and reference THE BIBLIOGRAPHY
works.  The etymology of this term can be semantically traced back to the New Latin
 Secondary sources describe, analyze, interpret, evaluate, comment on and discuss the bibliographia. It is a Greek word meaning “copying of books”. bibli (books) and
evidence provided by primary sources. graphia - graphy (writing) The concept was in practice by
 Bibliographies (also considered tertiary)  Greek writers in the first three centuries AD and was referred to as the copying of
 Biographical works books by hand.
 Commentaries  A bibliography is a list of all of the sources you have used (whether referenced or
 Criticisms
not) in the process of researching your work.
 4. Practical: They should offer a solution to a problem.
STANDARD BIBLIOGRAPHY FORMAT 5. Realistic: Vague objectives should be avoided.
 Bibliography Format for a Book: 6. Feasible: Researcher should be able to practice and perform as per stated objectives.
A standard bibliography for a book typically consists of the following information: 7. Evaluable: These objectives set forth for study have to be such that they can be
a) Author(s) evaluated in different situations and using tools for research.
b) Title The objectives should be SMART
c) Publisher • Specific
d) Date of Publication • Measurable
 Bibliography Format for a Periodical & Journal Article: • Achievable
An entry for a journal or periodical article contains the following information: • Relevant
a) Author(s) • Time bound
b) Article Title ________________________________________________________________________
c) Journal Title ________________________________________________________________________
d) Volume Number
e) Pages DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES:
f) Date of Publication  To describe the types of incentives provides by Hotel XYZ to employees in Mumbai.
 Bibliography Format for Internet Sources:  To find out the opinion of the employees about the medical facilities provided by five
Format for internet sources usually includes the following information: star hotels in Mumbai.
a) Author (Website) CO RELATIONAL STUDIES:
b) Article Title  To ascertain the impact of training on employee retention.
c) Publication Information  To compare the effectiveness of different loyalty programmes on repeat clientele.
d) Version HYPOTHESIS –TESTING STUDIES:
e) Date of Publication  To ascertain if an increase in working hours will increase the incidence of drug/alcohol
f) Location (Digital Object Identifier – DOI or URL) abuse.
 To demonstrate that the provision of company accommodation to employees in
3. THE FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES: Mumbai hotels will reduce staff turnover.
Objectives are the goals set out to attain in a study. DEFINING A VARIABLE:
 They inform a reader what you want to attain through the study. An image, perception or concept that can be measured; hence capable of taking on

 It is extremely important to word them clearly and specifically. different values- is called a variable.

Characteristics of Objectives: TYPES OF VARIABLES:

1. Specific: Precisely what you mean to achieve.  The dependent variable is the variable a researcher is interested in.

2. Important: Indicate the relevance/importance of study.  An independent variable is a variable believed to affect the dependent variable.

3. Measurable: What you would do/measure in terms of studying an issue.  Confounding variables are defined as interference caused by another variable.
 The difference between a concept and a variable: Concepts are mental images or 4. The ratio scale: A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval
perceptions and therefore everyone may develop a different view or perception about the scales plus its own property: the zero point of a ratio scale is fixed, which means it has a
same issue. fixed starting point.
 A concept cannot be measured whereas a variable can be subjected to measurement by
For example, the measurements of variables like income, age, height and weight.
crude/refined or subjective/objective units of measurement.
 Concepts should be converted into variables so that they can be measured, although on A person who is 40 year old is twice as old as one who is 20 year old.
different scales same variable will have different precision.
RESEARCH DESIGN PROCESS
MEASUREMENT SCALES:
The greater the refinement in the unit of measurement of a variable, the greater the Selection of research topic/problem,
confidence, other things being equal, one can place in the findings.
1) Framing research design, 2) Framing sampling design, 3) Collection of data,
 S. S. Stevens has classified the different types of into four categories:
 Nominal or classificatory scale 4) Data analysis/editing, 5) Processing and preservation 6) Coding,

 Ordinal or ranking scale

7) Writing research reports
 Interval scale
 Ratio scale TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

1. The nominal or classificatory scale: A nominal scale enables the classification of 1. Experimental Designs
individuals, objects or responses into subgroups based on a common/shared property or i. Quasi-experimental
characteristic. For example, the variable ―gender can be classified into two sub- ii. Experimental
categories: male and female. 2. Non- Experimental Designs
i. Case study designs/method.
2. The ordinal or ranking scale: Besides categorizing individuals, objects, responses or
ii. Content analysis.
a property into subgroups on the basis of common characteristic, it ranks the subgroups in
iii. Ethnography.
a certain order. For example, ‘income‘ can be measured either quantitatively (in rupees
iv. Focus groups.
and paisa) or qualitatively using subcategories ‘above average‘, ‘average‘ and ‘below
v. Network analysis and sociometry.
average‘.

3. The interval scale: An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale. In HYPOTHESES
addition, it uses a unit of measurement with an arbitrary starting and terminating points.
The purpose of hypothesis testing is to determine whether there is enough statistical evidence
For example: Measuring the temperatures:
in favor of a certain belief about a parameter.
Celsius scale: 0°C to 100°C  A hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative explanation or postulate by the researcher of
what the researcher considers the outcome of an investigation will be. It is an
Fahrenheit scale: 32°F to 212°F
informed/educated guess.
 It indicates the expectations of the researcher regarding certain variables. It is the
most specific way in which an answer to a problem can be stated.
  A tentative statement about a population parameter that might be true or wrong 3. A good hypothesis permits of the application of deductive reasoning.
The Difference Between A Hypothesis And A Problem
4. A good hypothesis shows very clear verbalization. It is different from what is generally

Both a hypothesis and a problem contribute to the body of knowledge which supports or called hunch.

refutes an existing theory. 5. A good hypothesis ensures that the methods of verification are under control of the

 A hypothesis differs from a problem. investigator.

 A problem is formulated in the form of a question; it serves as the basis or origin from 6. A good hypothesis guarantees that available tools and techniques will be effectively used
which a hypothesis is derived. for the purpose of verification.
 A hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem.
7. A good hypothesis takes into account the different types controls which are to be exercised
 A problem (question) cannot be directly tested, whereas a hypothesis can be tested
for the purpose of verification.
and verified.
8. A good hypothesis ensures that the sample is readily approachable.
When is a Hypothesis Formulated?
9. A good hypothesis indicates clearly the role of different variables involved in the study.
 A hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been stated and the literature study
has been concluded. 10. A good hypothesis maintains a very apparent distinction with what is called theory law,

 It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware of the theoretical and empirical facts, assumption and postulate

background to the problem.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION OF A HYPOTHESIS
The seven most common forms of hypotheses are:

 It offers explanations for the relationships between those variables that can be 1. Simple Hypothesis
empirically tested.
2. Complex Hypothesis
 It furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background knowledge to enable
him/her to make suggestions in order to extend existing knowledge. 3. Empirical Hypothesis
 It gives direction to an investigation.
4. Null Hypothesis (Denoted by "HO")
 It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore furnishes continuity to
the examination of the problem. 5. Alternative Hypothesis (Denoted by "H1")

CHARACTERISTICS OF A HYPOTHESIS 6. Logical Hypothesis

A good hypothesis must have the following ingredients: 7. Statistical Hypothesis

1. A good hypothesis is in agreement with the observed facts, meaning a good hypothesis 1. A simple hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two variables: the
does not conflict with any law of nature which is known to be true. independent variable and the dependent variable.
E.g., Drinking sugary drinks daily leads to obesity.
2. A good hypothesis is stated in the simplest possible term.
2. A complex hypothesis examines the relationship between two or more independent  According to Kerlinger (1973:201), hypothesis can be classified into two broad heads,
variables and two or more dependent variables. namely: i). Substantive hypothesis (popularly known as research hypotheses) & ii).
E.g., Overweight adults who 1) value longevity and 2) seek happiness are more likely than Statistical hypotheses.
other adults to 1) lose their excess weight and 2) feel a more regular sense of joy.
SOURCES OF HYPOTHESES
3. A null hypothesis (H0) exists when a researcher believes there is no relationship between
the two variables, or there is a lack of information to state a scientific hypothesis. This is A hypothesis may be formulated through a number of is sources.
something to attempt to disprove or discredit.
Following are the main sources of hypothesis.
 There is no significant change in my health during the times when I drink green tea
only or root beer only. 1. Personal Experience
4. This is where the alternative hypothesis (H1) enters the scene. In an attempt to disprove a
2. Imagination & Thinking
null hypothesis, researchers will seek to discover an alternative hypothesis.
 My health improves during the times when I drink green tea only, as opposed to root 3. Observation
beer only.
4. Scientific Theory
5. A logical hypothesis is a proposed explanation possessing limited evidence. Generally, you
want to turn a logical hypothesis into an empirical hypothesis, putting your theories or 5. Previous Study
postulations to the test.
6. Culture
 Cacti experience more successful growth rates than tulips on Mars. (Until we're able
1. Personal Experience
to test plant growth in Mars' ground for an extended period of time, the evidence for
this claim will be limited and the hypothesis will only remain logical.)  On the basis of his personal experience he uses his mind and suggests some points for the
eradication of a social problem through developing a good hypothesis.
6. An empirical hypothesis, or working hypothesis, comes to life when a theory is being put  Greater the researcher experience lead to higher degree of formation.
to the test, using observation and experiment. It is no longer just an idea or notion. It is
2. Imagination & Thinking
actually going through some trial and error, and perhaps changing around those independent
variables.  Creative thinking and imagination of a researcher sometimes help in formulating a good
hypothesis.
 Roses watered with liquid Vitamin B grow faster than roses watered with liquid
 Personal ideas and the thinking capabilities of a researcher would lead to greater number of
Vitamin E. (Here, trial and error is leading to a series of findings.)
hypothesis formulation as well as control over the problem.

7. A statistical hypothesis is an examination of a portion of a population. 3. Observation

 If you wanted to conduct a study on the life expectancy of Savannians, you would  In consideration and undertaking a research problem, observation is necessary.
want to examine every single resident of Savannah. This is not practical. Therefore,  The collection of previous facts and current facts related to the problem lead to the
you would conduct your research using a statistical hypothesis, or a sample of the formulation of a good hypothesis.
Savannian population.
4. Scientific Theory Need of Research Design

 Theory is capable in explaining all the facts relating to the problem.  It facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations
 Scientific theory is a fertile source of hypothesis formulation.
 It reduces inaccuracy
 The theory which is used by a researcher may satisfy the needs of making it, because theory
explains the known facts.  It helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability

5. Previous Study
 It eliminates bias and marginal errors
 Previous study is also a source of developing a concrete hypothesis.
 Advance planning of the method to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the
 If a researcher uses previous knowledge about a phenomenon for a particular place, then
techniques to be used in the analysis
another researcher followed his techniques and formulates his own.
 For example increase in fertilizers and irrigation leads to higher production in agriculture in  It minimizes wastage of time
District Champhai. Now another researcher studies his work and applies it to another District
 It is helpful for collecting research materials
Lunglei.

6. Culture  It is helpful for testing of hypothesis

 Culture is the accumulation of ways of behaving and adoption in a particular place and time.  It gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money, manpower,
 While formulating a hypothesis for a problem, culture should be studied. time, and efforts
 If we want to study trends towards female education in a particular area, for this purpose we
 It Provides an overview to other experts
will study traditions, family system, Norms, Values, region and education system of that area.
 It Guides the research in the right direction.
PREPARING THE RESEARCH DESIGN
PROPERTIES/CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN
According to Green and Tull “A research is the specification of methods and procedures for acquiring
the information needed. It is the overall operational pattern or framework of the project that stipulates  Reliability: Researcher should ensure that research questions are framed judiciously to
what information is to be collected from which sources by what procedures”. make it reliable and provide similar outcomes.

The preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves the  Generalization: The information collected from given sample must be utilized for
consideration of the following: providing a general application to the large group of which the sample is drawn.
 Ethical: It should be acceptable and be free of practices or procedures that may not be
1. Objectives of the research study.
honest or may give error /bias.
2. Methods of Data Collection to be adopted  It should be proficient in obtaining the most reliable and valid data
3. Sources of information—Sample Design  A good research design should be able to address any situation wherein any
unexpected events can be accommodated
4. Tools for Data collection
 It also helps a researcher arriving at flawed / misunderstood conclusions
5. Data Analysis Tools : qualitative and quantitative  It can adequately control the various threats of validity, both internal and external.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS STEPS IN DEVELOPING A RESEARCH DESIGN

1. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN: 1. Classify the intended outcome i.e. what needs to be understood.

A quantitative research design shares similar characteristics with a scientific research. 2. Develop the research question.

A quantitative research design is used to examine the relationship between variable by using 3. Understand what needs to be measured.
numbers and statistics.
4. Select the population as per the study taken up.
1. Descriptive design research
5. Identify the ideal data collection method.
2. Co relational design research
6. Construct interconnected characteristics.
3. Experimental design research
7. Use correct analysis tools.
4. Quasi-experimental design research
8. Decide how the findings of the study shall be published.
1. Descriptive design research: As the name implies, it is intended to describe the present
RESEARCH SKILLS
status of an issue or a problem which is analyzed based on the available data and so does not
require hypothesis to begin with. Research skills are the necessary tools to be able to find, compile, and interpret information
in order to answer a question.
2. Co relational design research: This seeks to discover if two variables are associated or
related in some way, using statistical analysis, while observing the variable.
THE MOST IMPORTANT RESEARCH SKILLS
3. Experimental design research: This is a method used to establish a cause and effect
1. Data collection.
relationship between two variables or among a group of variables
When thinking about the research process, data collection is often the first thing that comes to
4. Quasi-experimental design research: As the name suggests such an experiment is designed mind.
replicating the true experimental design  Data collection methods include:
 Observation
2. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN:
 Interviews
Qualitative research design, on the other hand, is exploratory in nature as it tries to discover  Questionnaires
not guess the conclusion.  Experimentation
 Conducting focus groups
 It seeks to answer the questions what and how.
2. Analysis of information from different sources.
 It is a process to identify or develop a hypothesis that is further tested using other
One of the skills that good researchers always incorporate into their process is an abundance
techniques.
of sources.
 A qualitative research design is used to explore the meaning and understanding of  Examples of reliable information sources include:
complex social environments  Published books
 Encyclopedias  Directness
 Magazines 6. Critical thinking.
 Databases Critical thinking skills can aid you greatly throughout the research process.
 Scholarly journals  Critical thinking skills involve:
 Newspapers  Observation
 Library catalogs  Analysis
3. Finding information on the internet.  Assessing issues
While it can be beneficial to consulate alternative sources, strong internet research skills drive  Problem-solving
modern-day research.  Creativity
 Internet research skills include:  Communication
 Source checking 7. Planning and scheduling.
 Searching relevant questions Creating a detailed outline map for the points you want to touch on in your research produces
 Exploring deeper than the first options more organized results.
 Avoiding distraction  Planning and scheduling skills include:
 Giving credit  Setting objectives
 Organizing findings  Identifying tasks
4. Interviewing.  Prioritizing
Being prepared with strong interviewing skills can be very helpful in the research process.  Delegating if needed
 Interviewing skills involves:  Vision
 A plan of action  Communication
 Specific, pointed questions  Clarity
 Respectfulness  Time-management
 Considering the interview setting 8. Note-taking.
 Actively Listening Research involves sifting through and taking in lots of information. Being able to take good
 Taking notes notes helps summarize research.
 Gratitude for participation  Examples of note-taking skills include:
5. Report writing.  Focus
Possessing skills in report writing can assist you in job and scholarly research.  Organization
 Report writing skills involve:  Using short-hand
 Proper format  Keeping your objective in mind
 Including a summary  Neatness
 Focusing on your initial goal  Highlighting important points
 Creating an outline  Reviewing notes afterward
 Proofreading
9. Communication skills. 12. Attention to detail.
Effective research requires being able to understand and process the information you receive, Need to be attentive to the details, both in terms of the information you’re gathering, but also
either written or spoken. in where you got it from.
 Communication skills include:  Attention to detail includes:
 Reading comprehension  Double checking statistics
 Writing  Taking notes
 Listening skills  Keeping track of your sources
 Presenting to an audience  Staying organized
 Creating graphs or charts  Making sure graphs are accurate and representative
 Explaining in layman’s terms  Properly citing sources
10. Time management.
The ability to effectively manage this time is extremely powerful in a professional context.
 Time management skills include:
 Scheduling
 Creating task outlines
 Strategic thinking
 Stress-management
 Delegation
 Communication
 Utilizing resources
 Setting realistic expectations
 Meeting deadlines
11. Using your network.
Knowing what people’s areas of expertise and asking for help can be tremendously beneficial
especially if it’s a subject you’re unfamiliar with.
 Networking involves:
 Remembering people’s areas of expertise
 Being willing to ask for help
 Communication
 Returning favors
 Making use of advice
 Asking for specific assistance