Oceanography

 Ocean Bottom topography:

 The land below the ocean waters


 Continental Shelf(07:32 PM):

 It is a submerged shallow part of the continent with a depth between 200 to 250 feet.
 It is rich in sublight, oxygen, and nutrients which favors the growth of plankton.
 the continental shelves are rich fishing grounds.
 The width of the shelf is dependent on the slope of adjacent land, it is wider along coastal plains and
narrows along the mountainous coast
 Continental Slope(07:47 PM):
 It is the boundary between continents and oceans.
 It forms the outer edge of the continents
 It is deeper than the continental shelf.
 Continental rise:
 It is the base of the continental slope with a lower gradient.
 It continues into the Abyssal plains.
 they are almost absent along trenches.
 Submarine Canyon(07:52 PM):
 these are the canyons formed along the continental slope due to turbidity currents of rivers entering
oceans.
 Abyssal plains:
 they are also called an oceanic basins.
 these are tectonically inactive ocean floor with relatively smooth surface and are made up of oceanic
sediments.
 The depth of Abyssal plains varies between 3000 to 6000 meters
 Sea Mounts(08:01 PM):
 These are isolated volcanic features along the oceanic floor formed due to Volcanic activity along hotspots.
 guyot:
 The sea mounts are sharply pointed and guyots are flat-topped hills with summits below the sea level.
 These are rich in life due the availability of sunlight and nutrients.
 Mid oceanic ridges and trenches:
 Please refer to Plate tectonics

Variation of temperature in Oceans :(01:16:00 PM)

 Major Factors:
 Insolation & Lattitude:
 Higher Lattitude - Lower insolation - results in lower temperature.
 Lower Lattitude- Higher insolation- Results in higher temperature.
 Winds:
 Planetary winds help in the distribution of temperature.
 There regions where westerly winds are their temperatures are higher than the regions of Polar easterlies.
 Ocean Currents:
 They help in the distribution of heat between equatorial and polar regions.
 The oceans where the warm ocean currents are active temperature is higher than in the regions of cold
ocean currents.
 Specific Heat:
 Ocean bodies with higher specific heat, heat up slowly and cool down slowly resulting in fewer seasonal
variations.
 The seas which are surrounded by land experience higher water temperatures due to the continental effect.
 For example, the Red sea, Persian gulf, and the Mediterranean Sea.
Vertical Temperature Distribution in Oceans: (01:28:00 PM)
 (Explained with diagrams & charts)
 Temperature of ocean water decreases with the depth.
 The ocean waters can be differentiated into three layers of differing temperatures:
 Epilimnion:
 It is from surface to up to 200 meters.
 The average temperature is 20-25 degrees celsius.
 It is a zone of constant sunlight and mixing due to winds.
 It is a zone of uniform temperature.
 This zone contains abundant life.
 Thermocline(Metalimnion):
 Temperature decreases rapidly with depth.
 It is also called as twilight zone due to its very faint light.
 Hypolimnion:
 It is a zone of uniform temperature but very cold compared to the surface.
 The average temperature is 4 degrees Celcius beacuse the ocean water has maximum density at 4 degrees
Celcius.
 This zone is also called the Dark Zone
 The life here is capable of generating light through Bioluminescence.
 Horizontal Temperature Distribution of Oceans:
 (Explained with diagrams & charts)
 The surface temperature lies between 20-25 degrees Celcius near tropical regions and gradually decreases
towards the polar regions.
 The three distinctive layers are visible in tropical regions, along temperate regions the thermocline is very thin
and there will be a single uniform layer of cold temperature along the polar regions.
Salinity of Oceans:(01:57:00 PM)
 (Explained with diagrams & charts)
 Salinity is the number of grams of dissolved salts in 1000 grams of seawater.
 It is measured in PPT(Parts per thousand).
 The average salinity of Earth's oceans= 35 ppts.
 Sources of salinity:
 Continents: Through the sediments eroded by rivers which get deposited in the oceans.
 Evaporation: When water gets evaporated it will leave salts behind.
 Volcanic Eruptions along the oceanic floor.
 Salinity of oceans remains constant.
 The factors adding up salts are balanced by the factors reducing the salinity such as:
 Precipitation,
 Ice melting,
 River water,
 Precipitation of salt- Excess salt gets deposited on the ocean floor.
 Major Salts in Ocean:
 Chlorine(19)> Sodium(10)> Sulhate(2.65)> Magnisum(1.28)> Calcium(0.41)> Pottasium(0.38).
Factors Affecting the Distribution of Ocean Salinity:(02:19:00 PM)
 Temperature: Higher temperature higher will be evaporation and a higher will be salinity.
 Precipitation: It brings more freshwater and decreases salinity.
 For example, Equitorial regions have lower salinity than subtropics.
 Rivers:
 Rivers add more fresh water and decrease the salinity. For example, low salinity along the delta regions of
Ganga, Amazon, etc.
 Wind Speed:
 Higher wind speed higher will be evaporation and higher will be salinity.
 Ocean Currents: They help in the distribution of salinity.
 Ice Melting and Formation:
 Ice formation increases the salinity and melting of ice decreases salinity.
Distribution of Salinity:(02:29:00 PM)
 (Explained with diagrams & charts)
 I. Vertical Distribution:
 Polar Regions:
 Along polar regions salinity near the surface is lower than the average as there is low temperate and low
evaporation.
 Salinity then increases with depth.
 Sub-Tropical region:
 It has higher salinity along the surface than average because of high temperature and high evaporation.
 Then decreases to become uniform after a certain depth.
 Equatorial Regions:
 High precipitation results in low salinity in the top layer which increases with depth and decreases to uniform
salinity.
 II. Horizontal Variations:
 Sub-Tropics>Equatorial Regions> Temperate Regions> Polar regions.
 Oceans with above-normal Salinity:
 Red Sea, The Persian Gulf, and the Medditarrian Sea.
 Oceans with below-normal Salinity:
 Arctic Ocean, North Sea, Baltic Sea, Bering Sea.
 The saltiest water Bodies: Lake Van(Turkey), Dead Sea, Great salt lake, and Sambhar Salt Lake(Rajasthan).
Ocean Deposits:(03:09:00 PM)
 (Explained with diagrams)
 There are four categories of oceanic deposits:
 Terrigenous(Lithogenous):
 These are the deposits that originated from the land.
 Example, sand, gravel, mud, silt, etc.
 Biogenous(Organic deposits):
 These are the depositions that originated from life in the oceans.
 For example, Coral reefs, Ooze(Shelly skeleton remains f ocean micro-organisms).
 Hygrogenous(Inorganic deposits):
 They are present in water only and get deposited.
 For example, Polymetallic nodules, and red clay.
 Cosmogenous Deposits:
 They are from space.
 For example, meteoritic debris.
Corals:(03:18:00 PM)
 (Explained with diagrams & PPTs)
 Coral Reefs are masses of limestone and Dolomite accumulated by lime-secreting organisms called Coral
polyps.
 They are developed due to the symbiotic relationship between coral polyps and Zooxanthellae algae.
 Coral reefs provide habitat for 31 phyla of animals leading to rich biodiversity, therefore they are also called
"Rainforests of oceans."
 Conditions required:
 Temperature- 20 degress celcius. Coral reefs are limited between 30 degrees north & south of the Equator.
 The coral reefs are absent along the western margins of continents due to cold ocean currents.
 Depth: Upto 200 to 250 feet.
 Platform - which is required to grow the colony, which is provided by the continental shelf.
 Salinity- It needs an average salinity of 35 ppts.
 It can not survive if any increase or decrease in salinity occurs.
 Clear Waters- Free of sediments, therefore coral reefs are not found near the deltas.
Distribution of Corals:(03:39:00 PM)
 (Explained with diagrams & PPTs)
 Cant find beyond 30 degrees latitude in both hemispheres as average temperatures of 20 degrees won't be
available.
 They are also not found near cold currents and deltas
 Coral Triangle: It covers Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Australia, and the Islands of the Pacific
Oceans.
 It is the largest area of coral reefs on the earth.
 2. Northern & Western Indian Oceans: These include the Arabian Sea, Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf.
 3. Western Atlantic including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean sea.
Types of Corals Reefs:(03:49:00 PM)
 (Explained with diagrams & PPTs)
 Three types of coral reefs:
 Fringing Reefs:
 A narrow coral reef with discontinuous patches lying close to the coast.
 For example, the coral reefs of the Caribbean region.
 Barrier reef:
 A wide coral platform located far from the coast and separated by a lagoon.
 For example, the great barrier reef.
 Atoll:
 A circular coral reef surrounding an island, seamount, or a guyot.
Coral Bleaching:(03:58:00 PM).
 (Explained with diagrams & PPTs)
 It is a phenomenon in which a stressed coral polyp expels zooxanthellae and turns white and gradually over
time it dies.
 Stress can be created due to:
 High temperature, sediments, pollution, chemicals used in beach areas, etc.
 Bleaching can be reversed if the stress is removed.
 Major cause of bleaching is human activities and global warming.

Coral Bleaching (1:24 PM)

 Corals receive their coloration from the algae living in a symbiotic relationship
 Coral bleaching refers to the loss of color of corals due to the stress-induced expulsion of symbiotic algae.
 The reasons behind coral bleaching are:
 (a) Changing water temperature due to global warming
 (b) Changes in Salinity.
 (c) Increased sedimentation
 (d) Water Pollution and thermal pollution
 (e) Oceanic acidification
 (f) Increased events of cyclones.
 (g) El-Nino
 (h) Dredging along the coastal regions
 Regions of Coral Bleaching
 (a) The great barrier reef was bleached by more than 50 percent between 2014-17, due to the El Nino event
 (b) 90 percent of the northern Indian Ocean lost its coral reefs, during El Nino of 1997-98.
Oceanic Circulations(1:32 PM)
 Ocean currents
 It is the general movement of surface water of the ocean in a definite direction over long distances
 there are two types of ocean currents:
 (a) Warm Ocean current
 It moves from the lower latitude to the higher latitude
 (b) Cold Ocean Current
 It moves from the higher latitude to the lower latitude.
 Factors affecting Ocean currents
 (a) Wind
 The steady blowing of winds drags the surface water in its direction, brings about the surface flow, and
steadily sets the water currents in motion.
 (b) shape of the coastline and topography
 It modifies the ocean current's direction.
 (c) Differences in Temperature, Salinity, and Density, cause the water to move and reduce the variation.
 Such differences guide the movement of ocean currents.
 (d) Coriolis force
 It causes ocean currents to deflect, right in the northern hemisphere and left in the southern hemisphere.
 Ocean Currents of the World (2:02 PM)

 Atlantic Ocean
 (a) North Equatorial Current
 (b) South Equatorial Current
 (c) Counter Equatorial Current
 (d) Antilles Current
 (e) Florida Current
 (f) Gulf Stream
 (g) North Atlantic drift
 (h) Norwegian Current
 (i) Canary Current
 (j) Labrador Current
 (k) East Greenland Current
 (l) Warm Brazilian Current
 (m) West Wind Drift
 (n) South Atlantic Drift
 (o) Benguela Current
 (p) Falkland current
 Part of the Ocean that is trapped between the surrounding Ocean currents is called Gyre, It rotates slowly
under the influence of surrounding ocean currents.
 Pacific Oceans Currents (3:07 PM)
 (a) North Equatorial Current
 (b) South Equatorial Current
 (c) Counter Equatorial Current
 (d) Kuroshio Current
 (e) North Pacific Drift
 (f) Warm Alaska Current
 (g) Cold Californian Current
 (h) Cold Okhotsk Current
 (i) Cold Oyashio Current
 Kuroshio merges with Okhotsk and Oyashio currents.
 (j) East Australian Current
 (k) Humboldt Current or Peru Current
 (l) South Pacific Current
 Indian Ocean Currents (3:22 PM)
 (a) North Equatorial Current
 (b) South Equatorial Current
 (c) Counter Equatorial Current
 (d) Mozambique Current
 (e) Agulhas Current
 (f) West Australian Current
 (g) North East Monsoon Drift (During Winters)
 (h) South West Monsoon drift (During Summers)
 Currents of Northern Indian Ocean (3:38 PM)
 Winters
 North equatorial current flows westward above the equator
 Equatorial counter-current flows between north equatorial and south equatorial currents.
 Northeast monsoon winds drive the water of the Bay of Bengal, and the Arabian Sea, to circulate in an anti-
clockwise direction, called as Northeast Monsoon Drift.
 Summers
 The entire water of the Northern Indian Ocean, comes under the influence of Southwest monsoon winds.
 It produces a clockwise flow of southwest monsoon drift.
 During this season, the north equatorial and counter equatorial currents are almost absent.

 Significance of Ocean Currents (3:55 PM)

 (a) the continuous movement of water from east to west in tropical regions, causes cold water upwelling,
around the eastern parts.
 It results in a drop in temperature.
 b) Accumulation of Warm water along the western part of tropical oceans leads to a rise in the water
temperature.
 (c) Western parts of the Ocean in the tropical regions, experience favorable conditions for the formation of
cyclones.
 In The eastern parts of the oceans, there are lesser occurrences of cyclones.

Significance of Ocean Current (Continued) (5:21 PM)

 (d) Cold Ocean currents along the West Coast, in subtropical regions suppress precipitation through the
desiccation effect (Dryness effect).
 This results in the formation of deserts.
 Examples: Atacama desert (Peru Current), Sahara desert (Canary Current), Mojave Desert (Californian
Current)
 (e) Warm Ocean Currents merging with Cold Ocean currents leads to favorable conditions for the
development of fishing banks.
 Examples, Grand bank near Newfoundland Island due to the merging of the Gulf stream with Labrador
Current.
 The merging of Warm and Cold Ocean currents results in fog formation obstructing ocean navigation. For
example Titanic
 (f) Warm Ocean Currents in temperate regions along the west coast of continents result in mild winters.
 It keeps the ports Ice free. For example, North Atlantic Drift along Britain, Alaskan Current along Western
Canada.
 (g) The offshore winds push the surface water away and cause cold water from the bottom to rise toward the
surface.
 This brings deep cold and nutrient-rich water to the surface and is known as upwelling.
 Upwelling brings rich nutrients supporting the fish's growth. For example, Peru Coast
 (h) Ocean Currents can be used in the navigation
 (i) Ocean Currents help in the global distribution of Temperature and Salinity.
 They transfer the heat from the tropical regions to the polar regions.
Upwelling and Downwelling (5:52 PM)
 Downwelling
 On-shore winds pile up the water near the coast causing the sinking of water below the surface layer.
 Downwelling is more active in the regions where warm and cold ocean currents meet.
 In polar regions ice formation leaves the water saltier and denser, causing it to sink, resulting in downwelling.
 Upwelling
 The off-shore winds push the surface waters away and cause the cold water from the bottom to rise to the
surface.
 It is more active in the regions of cold ocean currents.
Thermohaline Circulations (5:57 PM)


 These are the deep Ocean currents driven by the differences in water density, which is controlled by
temperature and salinity.
 The circulation begins near polar regions of downwelling and this underwater current moves in a single and
continuous belt across the different oceans
 They are connected to the surface water current in the regions of upwelling.
 They are called the Great Ocean Conveyor Belts.
 Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)
 It is part of the thermohaline circulation in the Atlantic ocean.
 The recent AR6 of IPCC talks about the weakening of AMOC, due to the global warming
 Factors responsible for the weakening
 (a) The temperature difference between tropical and polar regions is decreasing due to the warming of the
Arctic region.
 This weakens the north Atlantic drift.
 (b) Excessive addition of freshwater due to increased melting of the ice, in the polar region.
 This reduces downwelling, as the freshwater is less dense.
 Impacts
 (a) Western European countries experience harsh winters and frozen ports.
 (b) Western parts of Oceans in tropical regions experience a rise in sea levels.
 (c) Increased Occurrence of cyclones in tropical waters.
 (d) Disturbance of fishing zones.
 (e) Disturbance of the entire marine ecosystem, due to the changes in temperature and salinity.
 Water Mass (6:21 PM)


 It is a body of water, with uniform characteristics, of temperature and salinity.

 These are three types:
 (a) Surface water mass- For example, Antarctic Surface water mass
 (b) Intermediate Water Mass- For example, South pacific intermediate water mass
 (c) Deep Water Mass- For example, North Atlantic deep water mass
 Significance of water mass
 (a) Formation of water mass helped in the generation and maintenance of thermohaline circulations.
 (b) The movement of water mass help in the distribution of temperature, salinity, and oxygen
 (c) The uniformity of the conditions supports plankton and coral growth.
El Nino and related Phenomena(7:15 PM)
 Walker Circulation
 In the Pacific Ocean, ITCZ usually remains near or above the equator.
 Near the South American West coast, trade winds blow off-shore and blow the surface water westward away
from the continent.
 To replace this water, cold water upwells, and the air above this cold water is stabilized, and convection is
suppressed.
 The water flows westward as southeast trade winds blow towards the west pacific region.
 There it is heated and rises through convection, flows eastward, in the upper troposphere, and completes the
cell.
 This causes high pressure and low temperature in the eastern pacific ocean, and low pressure and high
temperature in the western pacific ocean.
 The resulting convective cell, is called Walker circulation.
 In normal conditions, the eastern pacific coast experiences drought, and the western pacific experiences
good rainfall.
 El Nino Southern Oscillation(ENSO) (7:36 PM)
 Once in 3-7 years in October-November, ITCZ moves too much to the south of the equator resulting in a
weakening of trade winds.
 This reduces the upwelling.
 The warm tropical surface waters earlier flowing towards the west, flows back eastwards and cause a further
reduction in upwelling.
 This results in warm surface water along the south and central American coast and is known as El Nino.
 The appearance of El Nino causes air pressure to drop over the eastern pacific coast, and rise over the
western pacific.
 This see-saw variation of air pressure, is called ENSO.
 El Nino causes heavy precipitation along the eastern pacific and drought conditions along the western pacific.
 After one or two years the enhanced Hadley circulation, strengthens the trade winds and increases the
upwelling.
 This brings back the normal conditions.
 La Lina
 EL Nino is usually followed by La Nina
 It is an intensified high-pressure, and cold temperature, along the eastern pacific, and lower low pressure and
higher high temperature along the western pacific.
 This causes very high precipitation in India and Australia, resulting in floods.
 2018-19, was the last observed El Nino. 2020-22, are the three consecutive years of La Nina, which is
referred to as a triple dip.

Impacts of El Nino (05:20 PM)

 The disturbance of walker circulation causes disturbance in the global weather patterns and the convective
cycles are disturbed in other oceans.
 It causes Draught and dry conditions in India and Australia.
 The Dry condition trigger forest fires or wildfires in these regions.
 It causes heavy precipitation along the coastal deserts of Peru and Chile.
 The warm water along the eastern pacific inhibits the growth of plankton and algae and suppressed upwelling
devastating the marine ecosystem and killing fish on a large scale.
 This causes a catastrophic impact on the fishing and fertilizer industry.
 The decomposition of fish results in dark water which is toxic and foul-smelling.
 During Elnino conditions mass coral bleaching is absorbed due to the disturbance of stable conditions at a
higher temperature of ocean water.
 It results in the occurrence of severe dust storms in India and Australia.
 During El Nino High-pressure conditions and subsidence of air in the western Pacific and Bay of Bengal and
Caribbean sea suppresses cyclone formation.
El Nino Modoki (05:43 PM)

 While El Nino is characterized by strong warming in the eastern pacific el Nino Modoki results in the warming
of the central pacific with Dry conditions along eastern and western parts.
 It creates a two-cell Walker circulation over the tropical pacific region with precipitation at the central part and
dry conditions along the eastern and western pacific regions.
 While El Nino results in diminished hurricanes in the Caribbean sea, El Nino Modoki causes increased
hurricanes.
 During El Nino Modoki cyclones occur more in the Arabian sea than in the Bay of Bengal.
Madden Julian oscillation (05:57 PM)
 Unlike EL Nino which is stationary, MJO is an eastward moving disturbance of clouds, Rainfall, winds and
pressure that traverses the planet in the tropics and returns to its initial starting point in 30 to 60 days on
average.
 MJO has two parts
 Enhanced Rainfall and suppressed rainfall.
 The continuous movement of MJO regularly changes the conditions from subsidence to convection.
 MJO can impact the timing and strength of the Indian monsoon as well as the impact of El Nino.
Indian Ocean Diapole (06:13 PM)
 The difference in sea surface temperature between the western Arabian sea and the eastern Indian ocean of
Indonesia and Australia is called as Indian Ocean Dipole.
 Positive IOD
 Warm sea surface in the western part relative to the East.
 Good precipitation near India and low precipitation in Indonesia and Australia.
 Reduces the impact of Elnino on India.
 Higher chances of cyclone formation in the Arabian sea than in the Bay of Bengal.
 Negative IOD
 Warm sea surface temperature in the eastern part than west.
 Bad for Indian Monsoon due to dryness and drought conditions.
 More precipitation in Indonesia and Australia.
 Increases the impact of El Nino on India.
Heat Dome (06:25 PM)
 The phenomenon of Heat dome was experienced in Canada and USA in 2021.
 It occurs when the atmosphere traps Hot air near to the surface like a lid.
 It is due to the combined effect of LaNina and weakened Jet streams.
 LaNina causes strong subsidence of Hot air along the eastern pacific.
 jet streams when weakened start to meander in their path.
 This weakened Jet stream while meandering traps the hot air descending due to Lanina for a longer period
resulting in the formation of a heat dome.
Tides (07:01 PM)
 The Regular rise and fall of water level in the world's oceans resulting from gravitational attraction by the
Moon and the sun is called Tides.
 The combined Gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon pulls oceanic water in a bulge.
 The centrifugal force of Earth's revolution pulls another bulge in opposite direction.
 The Bulge in one direction creates low waters in another as the earth rotates the position of high and low
waters changes across the surface.
 Factors affecting Tides
 The gravitational pull of the sun and the Moon.
 The relative position of the sun and moon
 Uneven distribution of water
 Ocean Bottom topography
 Centrifugal force due to revolution of the earth.
 Type of Tides


 a)Spring Tide
 These are Higher High tides and lower low tides experienced when Sun, Earth and Moon are in a straight line
i.e Syzygy.
 A conjunction is when Earth Moon and Sun, Opposition Moon Earth and Sun
 b)Neap Tides
 These are smaller high and low tides observed when Sun and Moon are in perpendicular positions.
i.e Quadrature
 Tides occurring twice a day are semi-diurnal tides and those occurring once a day are diurnal tides.
Significance of tides (07:31 PM)
 Commercial activities: Helpful for fishing activities along the coastal region.
 Navigation: It helps in Navigation for Tidal ports.
 Tidal energy: Generation of Electricity from Tidal energy.
 Helpful for the shipbuilding Industry.
 It helps in the Natural cleansing of the coast.
 The tidal range helps in maintaining Bio diversity along coastal regions.
 Restricts delta formation.
 Tides cause coastal erosion and degradation of land near coastal regions.

Baseline (07:41 PM)
 It is the average low water line.
 Internal waters
 It is the landward side of the baseline it includes all lagoons and deltas and other water bodies.
 Territorial sea
 Upto 12 Nautical miles from Baseline.
 Sovereign jurisdiction over Bottom surface and air.
 The innocent passage is allowed with restrictions.
 Contiguous Zone
 Up to 24 Nautical miles from the baseline
 Sovereign Jurisdiction over the bottom and surface but not in the air.
 Exclusive Economic zone
 Upto 200 Nautical miles from the Baseline or the edge of the continental shelves.
 A country enjoys exclusive rights over Economic resources.
 High seas
 International waters, It is the common heritage of Mankind and beyond any National jurisdiction.
 Comes under UNCLOS, International sea bed Authority.

UNCLOS

 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 1982 is an international agreement
that establishes the legal framework for marine and maritime activities.
 It is also known as Law of the Sea. It divides marine areas into five main zones namely- Internal
Waters, Territorial Sea, Contiguous Zone, Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and the High Seas.
 It is the only international convention which stipulates a framework for state jurisdiction in maritime
spaces. It provides a different legal status to different maritime zones.
 It provides the backbone for offshore governance by coastal states and those navigating the
oceans.
 It not only zones coastal states’ offshore areas but also provides specific guidance for states’ rights
and responsibilities in the five concentric zones.
 While UNCLOS has been signed and ratified by nearly all the coastal countries in the South China
Sea, its interpretation is still hotly disputed.
 There is a maritime dispute in the East China Sea as well.

Maritime Zones
 Baseline:

o It is the low-water line along the coast as officially recognized by the coastal state.

 Internal Waters:

o Internal waters are waters on the landward side of the baseline from which the breadth of the
territorial sea is measured.
o Each coastal state has full sovereignty over its internal waters as like its land
territory. Examples of internal waters include bays, ports, inlets, rivers and even lakes that are
connected to the sea.
o There is no right of innocent passage through internal waters.

 The innocent passage refers to the passing through the waters which are not prejudicial to
peace and security. However, the nations have the right to suspend the same.
 Territorial Sea:

o The territorial sea extends seaward up to 12 nautical miles (nm) from its baselines.

 A nautical mile is based on the circumference of the earth and is equal to one minute of
latitude. It is slightly more than a land measured mile (1 nautical mile = 1.1508 land miles or
1.85 km).
o The coastal states have sovereignty and jurisdiction over the territorial sea. These rights
extend not only on the surface but also to the seabed, subsoil, and even airspace.
o But the coastal states’ rights are limited by the innocent passage through the territorial sea.

 Contiguous Zone:

o The contiguous zone extends seaward up to 24 nm from its baselines.

o It is an intermediary zone between the territorial sea and the high seas.

o The coastal state has the right to both prevent and punish infringement of fiscal, immigration,
sanitary, and customs laws within its territory and territorial sea.
o Unlike the territorial sea, the contiguous zone only gives jurisdiction to a state on the ocean’s
surface and floor. It does not provide air and space rights.
 Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ):

o Each coastal State may claim an EEZ beyond and adjacent to its territorial sea that extends
seaward up to 200 nm from its baselines.
o Within its EEZ, a coastal state has:
  Sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving and managing natural
resources, whether living or non living, of the seabed and subsoil.
 Rights to carry out activities like the production of energy from the water, currents and wind.

o Unlike the territorial sea and the contiguous zone, the EEZ only allows for the above-mentioned
resource rights. It does not give a coastal state the right to prohibit or limit freedom of
navigation or overflight, subject to very limited exceptions.
 High Seas:

o The ocean surface and the water column beyond the EEZ are referred to as the high seas.

o It is considered as “the common heritage of all mankind” and is beyond any national
jurisdiction.
o States can conduct activities in these areas as long as they are for peaceful purposes, such as
transit, marine science, and undersea exploration.

About International Seabed Authority (ISA)

 It is an autonomous international organization established in 1994 to regulate mining and related

activities in the international seabed beyond national jurisdiction, an area that includes most of the
world’s oceans.
 The ISA came into existence upon the entry into force of the 1982 United Nations Convention on
the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which codified international law regarding territorial waters, sea
lanes, and ocean resources.
 ISA is the organization through which states parties to UNCLOS organize and control all mineral-
resources-related activities in the Area (the seabed and ocean floor and the subsoil thereof, beyond
the limits of national jurisdiction) for the benefit of humankind as a whole.
 In so doing, ISA has the mandate to ensure the effective protection of the marine environment from
harmful effects that may arise from deep-seabed-related activities.
 Headquarters: Kingston, Jamaica
 Members: As of May 2023, ISA has 169 Members, including 168 Member States and the European
Union.

Functions:

 The ISA is responsible for granting licenses and regulating activities related to the exploration and
exploitation of mineral resources in the international seabed.
 It ensures that these activities are carried out in a manner that protects the marine
environment and promotes the equitable and efficient utilization of resources.

Structure:

 The supreme authority of the ISA is the assembly, in which all ISA members are represented.
 The assembly sets general policies, establishes budgets, and elects a 36-member council, which
serves as the ISA’s executive authority.
 The council approves contracts with private corporations and government entities for
exploration and mining in specified areas of the international seabed.
 The council oversees implementation of the seabed provisions of the UNCLOS and establishes
provisional rules and procedures (subject to approval by the assembly) by which the ISA exercises its
regulatory authority.
 The secretary-general of the ISA is nominated by the council and is elected by the assembly to a four-
year term.

Key facts about the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

 UNCLOS, also called the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea Treaty, is an international
agreement that establishes a legal framework for all marine and maritime activities.
  It lays down a comprehensive regime of law and order in the world's oceans and seas,
establishing rules governing all uses of the oceans and their resources.
 UNCLOS became effective on 16th November 1982.
 UNCLOS covers a wide range of issues, including:
 The definition of maritime zones, such as the territorial sea, the contiguous zone, the exclusive
economic zone, and the continental shelf.
 The rights and responsibilities of coastal states and flag states.
 The conservation and management of marine resources.
 The protection of the marine environment.
 The peaceful settlement of disputes.

Q1: What is an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)?

The concept of an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) was adopted through the 1982 United Nations Convention on
the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). EEZ, as defined under UNCLOS, is an area of the ocean extending up to 200
nautical miles (370 km) immediately offshore from a country’s land coast in which that country retains exclusive
rights to the exploration and exploitation of natural resources.