SPATIAL INTERPOLATION
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Spatial interpolation involves finding a function f(x)
which best represents the entire surface of z-values
(called data values) associated with irregularly located
(x, y) points (called data sites). In addition this function
predicts z-values for other regularly spaced locations.
Predicting the value of an attribute at sites outside the
area By existing observations is called
EXTRAPOLATION.
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Understanding interpolation analysis
• Interpolation predicts values for cells in a raster from a limited
number of sample data points. It can be used to predict unknown
values for any geographic point data, such as elevation, rainfall,
chemical concentrations, noise levels, and so on.
• The illustrations below show the distribution and values of sample
points and the raster generated from them. The left illustration
shows a point dataset of known rainfall-level values. The
illustration on the right shows a raster interpolated from these
points. Unknown values are predicted with a mathematical
formula that uses the values of nearby known points.
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Why interpolate to raster?
• Each symbol in the point layer represents a location where
the elevation has been measured. By interpolating, the
values between these input points will be predicted.
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POINT BASED INTERPOLATION
EXACT METHODS APPROXIMATE METHODS
1. Proximal 1. Trend Surface Analysis
2. B-splines 2. Fourier Series
3. Kriging 3. Moving average/distance
4. Manual Interpolation or weighted average
"eyeballing"
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An overview of the Interpolation
• Visiting every location in a study area to measure
the height, magnitude, or concentration of a
phenomenon is usually difficult or expensive.
• Instead, you can measure the phenomenon at
strategically dispersed sample locations, and
predicted values can be assigned to all other
locations. Input points can be either randomly or
regularly spaced or based on a sampling scheme.
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• Surface interpolation functions create a continuous
(or prediction) surface from sampled point values.
For example, elevation, pollution, or noise. Surface
interpolation functions make predictions from
sample measurements for all locations in a raster
dataset whether or not a measurement has been
taken at the location.
• There is a variety of ways to derive a prediction for
each location. With each model, there are different
assumptions made of the data, and certain models
are more applicable for specific data.
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• The Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) and Spline methods
are referred to as deterministic interpolation methods
because they assign values to locations based on the
surrounding measured values and on specified
mathematical formulas that determine the smoothness of
the resulting surface.
• A second family of interpolation methods consists of
geostatistical methods, such as kriging, that are based on
statistical models that include autocorrelation (the
statistical relationship among the measured points).
Because of this, not only do geostatistical techniques have
the capability of producing a prediction surface, but they
also provide some measure of the certainty or accuracy of
the predictions.
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Proximal
All values are assumed to be equal to the nearest
known point. Is a local interpolator.
Computing load is relatively light.
Is absolutely robust, always produces a result, but has
no "intelligence" about the system being analyzed.
Available in very few mapping packages, SYMAP is a
notable exception.
thiessen polygon
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Moving average/distance weighted average
Is the most widely used method
Objections to this method arise from the fact that the range of
interpolated values is limited by the range of the data.
No interpolated value will be outside the observed range of z values
other problems include:
How many points should be included in the
averaging?
What to do about irregularly spaced points?
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Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW)
• Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) is a method of
interpolation that estimates cell values by averaging
the values of sample data points in the neighborhood
of each processing cell. The closer a point is to the
center of the cell being estimated, the more influence,
or weight, it has in the averaging process.
• This method assumes that the variable being mapped
decreases in influence with distance from its sampled
location. For example, when interpolating a surface of
consumer purchasing power for a retail site analysis,
the purchasing power of a more distant location will
have less influence because people are more likely to
shop closer to home.
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• Power: With IDW you can control the significance
of known points on the interpolated values based
on their distance from the output point. By
defining a higher power, more emphasis is placed
on the nearest points, and the resulting surface
will have more detail (be less smooth).
• Search radius: The characteristics of the
interpolated surface can be controlled by applying
a fixed or variable search radius, which limits the
number of input points that can be used for
calculating each interpolated cell.
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= ((230/23)+(320/58)+(580/35))/((1/23)+(1/58)+(1/35))
= 359.3716
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Splines
Ensures continuity in:
Elevation
Slope
Curvature
Output data structure is points on a raster .
Is a local interpolator .
Computing load is moderate.
Best for very smooth surfaces.
Are popular in general surface interpolation packages but are not common in
GIS.
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Spline
• The Spline method is an interpolation method that estimates values
using a mathematical function that minimizes overall surface
curvature, resulting in a smooth surface that passes exactly through
the input points.
• It fits a mathematical function to a specified number of nearest
input points while passing through the sample points. This method
is best for generating gently varying surfaces such as elevation,
water table heights, or pollution concentrations.
• The basic form of the minimum curvature Spline interpolation
imposes the following two conditions on the interpolant:
• The surface must pass exactly through the data points.
• The surface must have minimum curvature.
21/2/2017
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Trend Surface Analysis
Surface is approximated by a polynomial.
A trend surface is a global interpolator.
Computing load is relatively light.
Problem:
statistical assumptions of the model are rarely met in practice
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Trend analysis
• Trend is a global polynomial interpolation that fits a smooth surface
defined by a mathematical function (a polynomial) to the input
sample points. The trend surface changes gradually and captures
coarse-scale patterns in the data.
• Conceptually, trend interpolation is like taking a piece of paper and
fitting it between raised points (raised to the height of value). This is
demonstrated in the diagram below for a set of sample points of
elevation taken on a gently sloping hill. The piece of paper is
magenta.
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Trend analysis
• A flat piece of paper will not accurately capture a landscape
containing a valley. However, if you bend the piece of paper once,
you will get a much better fit. Adding a term to the mathematical
formula produces a similar result, a bend in the plane. A flat plane
(no bend in the piece of paper) is a first-order polynomial (linear).
Allowing for one bend is a second-order polynomial (quadratic),
two bends a third-order (cubic), and so forth; a maximum of 12
bends are allowed in ArcGIS Spatial Analyst. The following image
conceptually demonstrates a second-order polynomial fitted to a
valley.
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When to use trend interpolation
• Trend interpolation results in a smooth surface that
represents gradual trends in the surface over the
area of interest.
• Trend interpolation is used for:
• Fitting a surface to the sample points when the
surface varies gradually from region to region over
the area of interest—for example, pollution over an
industrial area.
• Examining or removing the effects of long-range or
global trends. In such circumstances, the technique is
often referred to as trend surface analysis. 20
Kriging
Developed by Georges Matheron, as the "theory of
regionalized variables", and D.G. Krige as an optimal
method of interpolation for use in the mining industry.
∙Simple Kriging routines are available in the Surface II
package and Surfer (Golden Software), and in the
GEOEAS package for the PC developed by the US
Environmental Protection Agency .
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Kriging
• A second family of interpolation methods
consists of geostatistical methods, such as
kriging, which are based on statistical models
that include autocorrelation—that is, the
statistical relationships among the measured
points. Because of this, not only do
geostatistical techniques have the capability of
producing a prediction surface, they also
provide some measure of the certainty or
accuracy of the predictions. 22
Kriging
• Kriging assumes that the distance or direction between
sample points reflects a spatial correlation that can be used to
explain variation in the surface.
• Kriging fits a mathematical function to a specified number of
points, or all points within a specified radius, to determine the
output value for each location. Kriging is a multistep process;
it includes exploratory statistical analysis of the data,
variogram modeling, creating the surface, and (optionally)
exploring a variance surface.
• Kriging is most appropriate when you know there is a spatially
correlated distance or directional bias in the data. It is often
used in soil science and geology.
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Kriging
• with the Kriging method, the weights are based not only on
the distance between the measured points and the prediction
location but also on the overall spatial arrangement of the
measured points. To use the spatial arrangement in the
weights, the spatial autocorrelation must be quantified.
• Thus, in ordinary kriging, the weight, λi, depends on a fitted
model to the measured points, the distance to the prediction
location, and the spatial relationships among the measured
values around the prediction location. The following sections
discuss how the general kriging formula is used to create a
map of the prediction surface and a map of the accuracy of
the predictions.
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Creating a prediction surface map with kriging
• To make a prediction with the kriging interpolation method, two
tasks are necessary:
• Uncover the dependency rules.
• Make the predictions.
• To realize these two tasks, kriging goes through a two-step process:
1. It creates the variograms and covariance functions to estimate the
statistical dependence (called spatial autocorrelation) values that
depend on the model of autocorrelation (fitting a model).
2. It predicts the unknown values (making a prediction).
• It is because of these two distinct tasks that it has been said that
kriging uses the data twice; the first time to estimate the spatial
autocorrelation of the data and the second to make the predictions.
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Variography
• Fitting a model, or spatial modeling, is also known as
structural analysis, or variography. In spatial modeling of
the structure of the measured points, you begin with a
graph of the empirical semivariogram, computed as:
Semivariogram(distance h) = 0.5 * average[ (value at
location i – value at location j)2 ]
• for all pairs of locations separated by distance h. The
formula involves calculating the difference squared
between the values of the paired locations.
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• The image below shows the pairing of one point (the red point)
with all other measured locations. This process continues for each
measured point.
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• Often each pair of locations has a unique distance, and there are
often many pairs of points. To plot all pairs quickly becomes
unmanageable. Instead of plotting each pair, the pairs are grouped
into lag bins. For example, compute the average semivariance for all
pairs of points that are greater than 40 meters apart but less than
50 meters. The empirical semivariogram is a graph of the averaged
semivariogram values on the y-axis and the distance (or lag) on the
x-axis
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Fitting a model to the empirical semivariogram
• To fit a model to the empirical semivariogram, select a function that
serves as your model—for example, a spherical type that rises then
levels off for larger distances beyond a certain range (see below).
There are deviations of the points on the empirical semivariogram
from the model; some points are above the model curve, and some
points are below. There are many semivariogram models from
which to choose.
• Semivariogram models
• ArcGIS Spatial Analyst provides the following functions from which
to choose for modeling the empirical semivariogram:
• Circular, Spherical, Exponential, Gaussian and Linear.
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The spherical model
• This model shows a progressive decrease of spatial
autocorrelation (equivalently, an increase of semivariance)
until some distance, beyond which autocorrelation is zero.
The spherical model is one of the most commonly used
models.
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Fourier Series
Proximate the surface by overlaying a series of sine and cosine
waves.
A global interpolator.
Computing load is moderate.
Output data structure is the Fourier series which can be used to
estimate grid values for a raster.
Best for data sets which exhibit marked periodicity, such as ocean
waves
Rarely incorporated in computing packages.
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Manual Interpolation or "eyeballing"
Traditionally not a highly regarded method among
geographers and cartographers
however, Dutton-Marion (1988) has shown that among
geologists this is a very important procedure and that most
geologists actually distrust the more sophisticated,
mathematical algorithms:
they feel that they can use their expert knowledge,
modelling capabilities and experience and generate a
more realistic interpolation by integrating this knowledge
into the construction of the geological surface
Abrupt changes such as faults are more easily modelled using
these methods
The surfaces are subjective and vary from expert to expert.
Output data structure is usually in the form of a contour
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