Basic Data Analysis
Agenda
• Announcements: evolutionary psychology
– .
• Introduction to Statistics
– What is the difference between Discrete and
Continuous variables?
– What are the different scales of measurement and what
properties of numbers does each posses?
– What is the difference between a population and a
sample?
– What is the difference between descriptive and
inferential statistics? the families
2 of stats
Why Statistics?
• Many students feel anxious about statistics.
• Benefits:
– Able to understand the _______
results section of journal articles.
– Able to analyze data.
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– Develop a valuable _______________.
transferable skills
• Challenging but not as difficult or unpleasant as you
might expect as long as:
– _____________!
Stay current
– Test your understanding!
– _____________!
Work
together
Definitions
• ___________:
Statistics describing events mathematically.
• ___________:
Observation entity to be measured.
• __________:
Measurement act of assigning numbers to observations
systematically.
• _______
Datum is a single measurement (_____
data is plural).
all
the number
• ___________: observations that have uniform values.
same
Constant
• ___________:
Variable observations that have non-uniform values. different
numbers
'
Data Observation
' Variable
Datum
'
Measurement
Constant
'
Statistics
'
Classification of Variables
• Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
– __________
Quantitative Variable: observations that can be counted;
values reflect _________________.
differences
in
degree
– _________ Variable: observations that can be categorized;
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Qualitative
values reflect ______________.
differences
in kind
• Discrete vs. Continuous:
– _______
Discrete Variable: observations take separated values only
(no values exist between adjacent numbers). ex
.
you
but not
can
2 .
5
have 1 2
siblings
, ,
3
siblings
– _________
Continuous Variable: infinite number of values exist exist decimals
qualitative discrete
between any two observations.
murital status- > ,
quantitative cts.
weight e ,
temperature >
-
quantitative its. ,
eyecolour ->
qualitative , discrete
hours of sleep -
quantitative ,
its
Continuous Variables
• Imagine that you measure your weight by standing on
a scale and the scale reads 150 lbs. How much do you
weigh?
– 150 lbs.?
– 150.2 lbs.?
– 149.8 lbs.?
– 150.02 lbs.?
– 150.000000000002 lbs.?
– Number of decimals determines precision of measurement.
Infinite number of potential decimal places!
Real Limits for Continuous Variables
• ____________are
Real limits boundaries of intervals for scores
obtained on a continuous variable.
– Located exactly midway between two adjacent scores.
– ______
Upper Real Limit = _______.
150 51bs
.
– ______ Real Limit = _______.
Lower 149 5lbs
.
write out C
3 onsecutive
numbers and find the
midpoints
Scales
• _________
Nominal Scale: Grouping observations into
________
categories with equivalent attributes.
– Numbers are arbitrary (e.g., Sex).
– ___________.
Qualitative
• _______
Ordinal Scale: observations are ___________.
rank ordered
– Numbers reflect having more or less of some attribute but
intervals between numbers reflect irregular differences (e.g.,
Low, Medium & High SES).
– ___________.
Quantitative
Scales
• _______
Interval Scale: Observations have different
magnitudes of an attribute and ____________between
equal distances
numbers represent _______________in
equal distances the attribute.
– Arbitrary zero (e.g., ℃); ratios are inappropriate.
– __________.
Quantitative
• ________
Rlaio Scale: Observations represent equal
amounts of the attribute from an absolute zero.
∞
– True zero exists (0º Kelvin). Gok
.. true
=
zero
no heat
– ___________.
Quantitative
drug dosage (ex .
long is 2x
stronger than
Smg)
Properties of Numbers
• Numbers have four properties:
– ____________.
Uniqueness 「
– _______.
Order
– _________________
Addition/Subtraction← Equal Intervals.
– __________________
Multiplication/Division
←
True Zero.
• Four levels of measurement (scales) are each
associated with one of the four properties of numbers.
∴
– Nominal scales have ____________________________.
uniqueness
– Ordinal scales have ____________________________.
uniqueness and order
– Interval scales have _____________________________.
uniqueness order and equal intervals
, ,
– Ratio scales have ________________________________.
uniqueness order equal intervals and true
, , ,
zero
Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale
1 2 3 4
I am able to do things as Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly
well as most other people. Disagree Agree
• _______
Likert scale.
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• Uses equal intervals to measure ________________but…
level of
agreement
• Is the difference between “disagree” and agree”
__________the
the same as difference between “agree” and “strongly
agree”?
• Impossible to conclude.
• _____
More than an ordinal scale but ______
less than an interval scale.
Transforming Scales
• Number line with all ages between 0 and 100 years reflects a
___________with
ratio scale ____________
high precision .
• Transform the scale to reflect three age groups: childhood (0 to
12.5 years), adolescents (12.5 to 19.5 years), & adulthood
(19.5 to 100 years).
• Transformation now reflects an __________with
ordinal scale
___________.
low precision
• Transformation from _________________to
ordinal (low precision) ratio (______
high precision
_________) not possible!
C A Adulthood
Scales
Feature Example
Ratio __________
True zero °K
Interval ___________
Equal intervals °C
Psych Instruments
Ordinal ___________
Rank SES
___________
Quantitative
___________
Qualitative
Nominal ___________
Uniqueness Sex
Two Families of Statistics
• _________________: used to describe, summarize, and
simplify a set of observations.
– Central Tendency: describes a _____________.
– Variability: describes the ________________.
– Correlation: describes the ___________________________.
• __________________: used to infer characteristics about the
population from a sample.
Populations vs. Samples
• Population vs. Sample
– __________ is the __________of
observations.
– _____ is a _____ of observations
taken to represent the _________.
• Parameter vs. Statistic
– _______ describes a
characteristic of the population:
_______ letters.
– _______ describes corresponding
characteristic of the sample:
__________ letters.
Sampling Error
• The discrepancy
observed between a
____________ and its
corresponding
________________.
• Sampling error _______
from sample to sample
Inferential Statistics
• Why are the two groups
different?
–
_______________________
____________.
–
_______________________
_____________.
• Step 3: use ________
statistics to determine which
explanation is appropriate.
Mathematical Operations
• Addition is the ____ of two addends (numbers).
2 + 98 = 100
• Subtraction is the ________ between two numbers
and is equivalent to ____________________.
100 – 2 = 100 + (-2) = 98
• Multiplication is the _______ of two numbers and is
equivalent to ______________________________.
100 * 2 = 100 + 100 = 200
Mathematical Operations
• Division is the number of times one number is __________
another number and is equivalent to ____________________.
100 / 2 = 100 * ½ = 50
• _____________ is raising one number to the power of another
number and is equivalent to _________________________
_________.
104 = 10 * 10 * 10 * 10 = 10 000
• __________is a number that produces a specified quantity
when multiplied by itself.
Square root of 144 is 12 because 12 * 12 = 144
Order of Operations
2*6+3=?
(2 * 6) + 3 = 12 + 3 = 15
2 * (6 + 3) = 2 * 9 = 18
Addition Exponents
Brackets Multiplication
Division Subtraction
Properties of Algebra
• ___________ property of _____________________:
changing the order of the terms does not change their
sum or product.
a+b=b+a
a*b=b*a
• _________ property of _______________________:
changing the grouping of the terms does not change
their sum or product.
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c
Properties of Algebra
• ____________ property: when __________________
__________________, the term outside the brackets can
be distributed to each of the terms inside the brackets.
a(b + c) = ab + ac
(a – b)c = ac – bc
• ____________: Perform the same operation to both sides
when moving terms from one side of an equation to the
other:
Example Questions
• Solve for X:
– 5+X–1=2–X+4
– 3 + 8 / 2 = X(10 – 6)
– X/5=5/X
– X3 / X = 36
– 2(22 – X) – X – (23 + X) = 0
Notation
• ____ is the score for the ____ case on the ___
measure.
– Subscript i represents ___________(participants) and
ranges from _______.
– Subscript j represents different ___________ (measures)
General Case
and ranges from ______.
x11 x12 x13 … x1J
x21 x22 x23 … x2J
x31 x32 x33 … x3J
… … … …
xn1 xn2 xn3 … xnJ
Notation
Specific Case
50 48 45 42 41
40 38 35 32 31
30 28 25 22 21
20 18 15 12 11
10
• What is the value of8n and5J in this
2 1
example?
• What is the notation for the scores 25, 18, 10?
• What score appears for X12, X35, X3J, Xn4?
Summation
• Greek letter sigma __ indicates _________ and is
used to add all the scores in a row or column.
ΣXi1 = sum all the scores on the first measure
ΣXi1 = X11 + X21 + X31 + … + Xn1
ΣXi1 = 50 + 40 + 30 + 20 + 10 = 150
Specific Case
50 48 45 42 41
40 38 35 32 31
30 28 25 22 21
20 18 15 12 11
10 8 5 2 1
Summation
ΣX1j = sum all the scores for the first case
ΣX1j = X11 + X12 + X13 + … + X1J
ΣX1j = 50 + 48 + 45 + 42 + 41 = 226
Specific Case
Examples:
ΣXi1 + ΣXi2 = 50 48 45 42 41
ΣX1j + ΣX2j + ΣX3j + ΣX4j + ΣX5j 40 38 35 32 31
=
ΣXij =
30 28 25 22 21
ΣXnJ = 20 18 15 12 11
ΣX5j2 =
10 8 5 2 1
Σ(Xi1 – 30)2 =