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ddIGINAL RESEARCH published: 19 June 2019 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01377 Enhancing Women’s
Well-Being: The Role of Psychological Capital and Perceived Gender Equity, With Social Support as a
Moderator and Commitment as a Mediator Sonam Chawla* and Radha R. Sharma Organizational
Behavior, Management Development Institute, Gurgaon, India Edited by: Diana Bilimoria, Case Western
Reserve University, United States Reviewed by: Latha Poonamallee, The New School, United States
Sharon Coen, University of Salford, United Kingdom *Correspondence: Sonam Chawla
sonamchawla@[Link] Specialty section: This article was submitted to Organizational Psychology, a
section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology Received: 09 January 2019 Accepted: 27 May 2019
Published: 19 June 2019 Citation: Chawla S and Sharma RR (2019) Enhancing Women’s Well-Being:
The Role of Psychological Capital and Perceived Gender Equity, With Social Support as a Moderator and
Commitment as a Mediator. Front. Psychol. 10:1377. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01377 The study aims to
determine the role of psychological capital and perceived gender equity on employee well-being,
particularly women, and assess if commitment mediates and social support moderates the relationships
between psychological capital, perceived gender equity, and well-being. A personal survey method was
employed for data collection using standardized measures from a representative sample of 433 managers
(201 women and 233 men) from private sector companies in India. The f indings revealed that perceived
gender equity in the workplace positively impacts employee well-being for both men and women, with
the greater impact being on women’s well-being. To Facilitate employee well-being, organizations can
leverage the strengths of psychological capital through training interventions and can promote perceived
gender equity through appropriate policies and practices. This bridges the knowledge gap in developing
and utilizing psychological capital to enhance employee well-being, especially for women, who are under
pressure due to their demanding multiple roles at work and home. Keywords: commitment, gender equity,
Indian study, psychological capital, social support, well-being, women’s well-being INTRODUCTION
Organizations, in a knowledge- and information-driven economy, are realizing the importance of
humancapital in gaining and sustaining a competitive edge (Williams et al., 2016). With increasing
competition and the paucity of trained human resources (Frank et al., 2004), organizations are focusing
more than ever before on attracting and retaining talent. In addition, employees increasingly expect
organizations to play an active role in supporting their well-being, which strengthens the organizations’
positions as attractive employers (Martin et al., 2005). Furthermore, employee well-being is important to
organizations due to its connection to higher productivity, dependability, and overall work quality (Diener
et al., 2002). Employee well-being has been found to be related to their making “personal sacrifices for
the client,” going beyond the call of duty and expectation (O’Donohoe and Turley, 2006). Though
economic developments have increased the employmentopportunities for women,theirhappinessandwell-
beinghavedecreased Frontiers in Psychology | [Link] 1 June 2019 | Volume 10 | Article
1377 Chawla and Sharma Enhancing Women’s Well-Being since the 1970s compared to men (Stevenson
and Wolfers, 2009). One probable reason is that women’s participation in the workforce
hasnotbeenaccompaniedbyashiftintheirhousehold responsibilities, thus they work a “second shift”
(Hochschild and Machung, 1989; Aguiar and Hurst, 2007). Thus, the volatile economic conditions and
increasing work pressures have made employee well-being a pivotal subject of investigation, the strain
being more pronounced for women (Sharma and Sharma, 2015). The purpose of the study is to
investigate the influence of psychological capital (PsyCap) and perceived gender equity (PGE)
onwomen’swell-being. We also investigated commitment as a mediator and social support as a moderator
between PsyCap and PGE on well-being. Drawing on the data pertaining to 433 employees (men and
women) in service sector companies in India, this study conducted an empirical analysis using structural
equation modeling to find the role of PsyCap and PGE in women’s well-being. Scarcity of talent has led
organizations to realize the importance of directing their efforts toward attracting, advancing, and
retaining women in the workforce (Kochan et al., 2003; Tatli et al., 2013). Also, there is an increasing
realization that gender diversity, if managed well, would yield dividends in enhancing performance
(Kochan et al., 2003). Research evidence suggests that both men and women enter the workforce at
comparable levels; however, their career paths begin to diverge after a point as women continue to face
challenges while climbing the management ladder (Bowling and Beehr, 2006; Riccucci, 2009; Davidson,
2012). Consequently, a number of women, dissatisfied with their treatment at work and the lack of
advancement opportunities, leave their corporate careers mid-way (Townsend, 1997; Kottke and Agars,
2005). According to Catalyst (2016), in Standard and Poor’s (S&P) 500 companies, there have been
44.7% total female employees, of which 26.5% were at mid-level managerial positions and only 5.2% at
the CEO level. Whereas in India, 19% of employees in senior management were women (Catalyst, 2016)
and 7% were women at the CEO/Managing Director level. According to the World Bank Report (2016),
women’s participation in the Indian labor force continues to fall from 34.8 to 26.7%, which ought to be a
cause for concern for these organizations. Societal beliefs and expectations make working Indian women
more vulnerable to stress, as they are expected to not only play dual roles at home and work but also to
perform well in the workplace (Naqvi, 2011; Chawla and Sharma, 2016). The Nielsen Survey reports that
working Indian women are the most stressed in the world, as 87% of working Indian women reported that
they felt stressed, anxious, and unenthusiastic, while 82% said that they had no time to relax. Also, 55%
of working Indian women experienced stress because of workplace bias and gender discrimination. This
trade-off between household responsibilities and work demands, as well as the resultant stress, make them
leave their jobs early on (Radhakrishnan, 2011). The attrition of female employees along the career track
entails considerable loss to the organization due to investment in their potential development. Taylor
(2002) suggested that relationships in the workplace, fair treatment, and work environment may be more
important to the well-being of women than that of men, as women are likely to experience both positive
and negative emotions more intensely than men (Fujita et al., 1991). The reasons mentioned above make
a compelling case for studying the determinants of well-being in female employees. Psychological
capital, which finds its roots in the field of positive organizational behavior (POB), comprises of an
individual’s positive psychological resources, namely hope, optimism, self-efficacy, and resilience
(Luthans et al., 2007). It has been found to have an inherent ability to enhance well being (Luthans et al.,
2010). Though Avey et al. (2010) have found preliminary evidence linking PsyCap and well-being, there
have been fewer studies investigating the mechanisms through which this relationship may be fostered
(Williams et al., 2016). There is a research gap about how this relationship varies for different groups and
how PsyCap can be developed to help womenenhance their well-being. Furthermore, fairness and equity
in the workplace are known to be important inputs to an individual’s well-being (Wilkinson and Pickett,
2010; David et al., 2012), but have been rarely considered by prior studies except in a few contexts like
fairness perceptions of employee feedback (Sparr and Sonnentag, 2008) and organizational justice
(Lawson et al., 2009), and rarely in the context of female employees (Burke et al., 2009; Sharma and
Sharma, 2015). It is established that discrimination in the workplace affects the well-being of employees
(Schmitt et al., 2002). Review of the extant literature yielded a few studies on organizational and personal
factors adversely affecting working women’s well-being, but there is a paucity of studies focusing on how
to enhance their well-being. In this study, we have tried to determine how organizations can contribute to
the well-being of employees, especially women, through a gender-equitable environment and by
leveraging their positive psychological resources. We investigate this through the composite construct of
PGE encompassing organizational policies, practices, and the environment, leading to gender-equitable
perceptions among the employees (Sharma Radha, 2013; Sharma and Sharma, 2015) and PsyCap that
affects their well-being. The study also investigates the role of commitment and social support as
intervening variables between PGE, PsyCap, and well-being, and suggests measures for enhancing well-
being. THEORETICAL BACKGROUNDAND HYPOTHESES Well-Being Well-being at work has been
defined in a variety of ways in the extant literature (Lyubomirsky, 2007; Page and Vella-Brodrick, 2009;
Fisher, 2010; Sharma and Sharma, 2015). For the present study, well-being has been considered as
subjective well-being (SWB) (Diener, 1984), which is the dominant conception in the literature (David et
al., 2013). SWB is how people evaluate their lives in terms of affect (how we feel) and cognitive (how we
think) components (Diener et al., 1999, 2016). The affective component is associated with emotions and
the experience an individual has of momentary events in his/her life. The cognitive component Frontiers
in Psychology | [Link] 2 June 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1377 Chawla and Sharma
Enhancing Women’s Well-Being consists of life satisfaction concerning how individuals perceive their
lives and referring to the discrepancy between their present situation and what they think is ideal for
them. The settings in which one works– support at work, the nature of interactions and relationships with
others, the work environment (Barling and Frone, 2004), and job characteristics (Warr, 2013)– all affect
the well-being of an employee. SWB has been found to predict health and longevity of employment (Liu
et al., 2010; Diener and Chan, 2011; Kuykendall and Tay, 2015; Tay et al., 2015), employees going
beyond the call of duty for customers, lower turnover, and a lower intention of quitting (Podsakoff et al.,
2007). Also, well-performing firms encourage positive affect (PA) in employees (Losada and Heaphy,
2004; O’Donohoe and Turley, 2006). Furthermore, we used the construct of SWB for this study, as it
encompasses not only work but also non-work facets that affect work, which have recently been
recognized as important aspects in evaluating an employee’s well-being (Diener et al., 2017). Volatile
economic conditions have made employees insecure about their employmentstatus, future career
prospects, and long term financial security (Guest, 2017). Also, while technology has been a boon with
respect to the automation of routine tasks, access to information, and flexible working, it has also led to
“work-home interference” (Derks et al., 2014), decreased autonomy, and increased work demands
(Felstead et al., 2015). This has reduced the well-being of employees in organizations (Guest, 2017),
calling for investigation. Well-Being and Women Women’s joining the workforce has not been
accompanied by a change in their household responsibilities (Aguiar and Hurst, 2007), resulting in
additional roles for working women. The stress hypothesis theory of multiple roles (Goode, 1960)
suggests an individual’s well-being reduces when an additional role is added to the societal role that
already includes many demands and hassles. Working women experience the same while meeting the
demands of high performance at work as well as managing children and the household. Krueger (2007)
estimated that women became hedonically worse off compared to men between 1966 and 2005. Most of
the previous studies on women’s well being have focused on physical health, such as cardiovascular
diseases (Ebi-Kryston et al., 1990; Pavalko and Smith, 1999), and only a few have focused on their
psychological well-being (Kopp and Ruzicka, 1993; Martire et al., 2000; Sharma and Sharma, 2015).
Hence, the present study focuses on psychological capital. Psychological Capital and Well-Being
Psychological capital has its origins in positive psychology (Seligman, 1998) and positive organizational
behavior (POB) (Luthans, 2002; Cameron et al., 2003; Wright, 2003). PsyCap is defined as the following:
An individual’s positive psychological state of development characterized by: (i) having confidence
(efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks; (ii) making a positive
attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future; (iii) persevering toward goals and, when
necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (iv) when beset by problems and
adversity, sustaining and bouncing back, and even beyond (resilience) to attain success (Luthans et al.,
2007, p. 3). PsyCap has the ability to influence people’s positive appraisals and understandings of
situations, which can, in turn, influence their well-being (Avey et al., 2010). Youssef and Luthans (2013)
stated that the cognitive and affective mechanisms of PsyCap can contribute to the well-being of
employees. People with high psychological capital can, therefore, appraise demanding and difficult
situations positively with a positive state of mind and emotions. Moreover, in comparison to other “trait-
like” psychological resources, like personality, character, intelligence, and temperament, PsyCap is more
“state-like,” which is malleable and open to development and interventions (Luthans et al., 2007). “Trait-
like” characteristics are more static, largely genetically determined, and therefore, difficult to change
(Luthans andAvolio, 2014). Thereby, PsyCap has been selected as a study variable. PsyCap and Well-
Being in Women Working women play multiple roles at work and at home while being constrained for
time, which may contribute to health problems, stress, anxiety, and other negative outcomes (Gjerdingen
et al., 2001). Each of the four dimensions of PsyCap (hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism) has the
potential of playing an important role to help a female manager overcome the challenges at work and in
managing stress. Hope (Snyder et al., 1991) signifies the willpower for finding alternate paths to achieve
goals; women with hope can expect to succeed given the constant redirection of career paths that takes
place in a woman’s professional life (Mainiero and Sullivan, 2005). Self efficacy (Bandura, 1997) is the
confidence and belief in one’s own ability to overcome challenging situations (Newman et al., 2014). It is
pivotal for women to feel confident about the skills, abilities, and knowledge that they bring to the
workplace, considering thesocietal skepticism abouttheireffortsandabilities to perform. Resilience is the
capacity to bounce back from adverse conditions, failure, and conflict (Luthans, 2002). When one
considers the common setbacks faced by women in the workplace (like gender bias and attribution of
their success to non-merit factors), resilience becomes an important resource for a
[Link], optimism (Seligman, 1998) is the ability to
attribute positive events to internal and lasting causes (Youssef and Luthans, 2013) and negative events to
temporary and external situations. In the case of working women, optimism plays an important role in
negative situations that they face in their organizations. Women at work, therefore, might benefit with the
development of PsyCap by lowering the experience of negative emotions and enhancing well-being.
According to Combs et al. (2012), PsyCap might be of greater benefit to marginalized groups in the
workplace, given that it will provide them with the confidence to seek much needed support and advice
from others in the workplace. Few studies have focused on the relationship between PsyCap and
subjective well-being in an organizational setting (Nguyen and Nguyen, 2012; Baron et al., 2013), and
there is some initial evidence that PsyCap positively impacts the subjective well-being Frontiers in
Psychology | [Link] 3 June 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1377 Chawla and Sharma Enhancing
Women’s Well-Being of individuals over time (Avey et al., 2010; Culbertson et al., 2010; Luthans et al.,
2013). PsyCap, with a potential to protect and defend the well-being of women at work, has never been
studied in relation to enhancing women’s well-being. Thus, we hypothesize the following: Hypothesis 1a.
PsyCap has a positive and significant relation to well-being. Hypothesis 1b. There is a significant
difference between the relation of PsyCap to well-being concerning men vs. women. Hypothesis 1c. The
positive effect of PsyCap on well-being is stronger for women than for men. Perceived Gender Equity and
Well-Being In the environment-centered happiness perspective, David et al. (2013) identified equity at
the workplace as one of the important factors affecting well-being. Perceptions of fairness at work are
important inputs to well-being at work. The equity theory (Adams, 1965) also confirms that people need
to feel that their inputs are equal to their perceived outputs, in order to feel fairly treated. Therefore, the
setting in which one works, work policies, treatment, and interactions with other people all contribute to a
person’s well-being (Caza and Wrzesniewski, 2013). Any perceived imbalance would affect the well-
being of employees. Furthermore, social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1986) stresses the importance
of inclusion for well-being and predicts that rejection from important social groups can be painful.
Womenhavebeenfacingdiscrimination and unfair treatment at work due to organizational policies and
processes (Kanter, 1993). The gendered perceptions (stereotypes and gender roles) at the workplace
further create injustice for women (Chawla and Sharma, 2016). The aforementioned causes lead to a
feeling of discrimination and stress for working women, which in turn, negatively affects their well-being.
Also, Sharma and Sharma (2015) established a negative relationship in their study between perceived
gender equity and burnout in the workplace for both men and women. Though organizational policies
exist for facilitating women’s advancement and fair treatment, they remain a mere eyewash because of
the gendered perception supervisors and peers have and their inability to put these into practice (Eagly
and Carli, 2007). Consequently, equitable employment opportunities play a crucial role in balancing an
employee’s private and professional life, and thus are expected to help women maintain the work/life
balance. This can be possible if organizations formulate policies involving the reconciliation of work and
care, temporary withdrawal from work, leave arrangement, and professional support (Burgess et al.,
2007), and also provide an environment to avail of such policies. The construct that appropriately
explains this in the literature is PGE. The construct of PGE in the workplace was evolved in 2013 by
Sharma Radha, who also developed and standardized a measure for it. PGE in the workplace is defined as
“employees’ positive perception of equal opportunity in recruitment, training and development,
compensation, career progression, dignified treatment and professional respect through the organizational
policies, practices and environment” (Sharma Radha, 2013). The construct is comprised of three
dimensions: “equity perception through organizational policies,” “equity perception through
organizational practices,” and “equity perception through organizational environment” (Sharma and
Sharma, 2015). Therefore, the construct considers not only the presence of equitable policies but also
their implementation and a conducive environment in which to implement them. PGE has been found to
be positively related to work engagement and general satisfaction with life and work, and negatively
related to burnout (Sharma and Sharma, 2015). We therefore hypothesize the following: Hypothesis 2a.
PGE has a positive and significant relation to well-being. Hypothesis 2b. There is a significant difference
between the positive effect of PGE and well-being concerning men vs. women in the workplace.
Hypothesis 2c. The positive effect of PGE on well-being is stronger for women than for men.
Commitment Organizational commitment refers to the strength with which an employee binds oneself to
the organization and displays behaviors that are valuable to the organization (Allen and Meyer, 1990;
Meyer et al., 2006). As economic uncertainty continues to plague the world, the commitment of each
employee to their organization is essential to both the employeeandtheorganizationforpositivity and
professionalism. Companies today face a huge challenge in maintaining employee commitment,
particularly for minorities and women (Ensher et al., 2001). Commitment has been classified as either
affective, normative, or continuance commitment (Meyer and Allen, 1984). Affective commitment is said
to have the maximum effect on organizationally desired behavior (Meyer and Allen, 1991). In addition to
feeling satisfied, Allen and Meyer (1990) established that equity is an important antecedent to affective
commitment. Also, an employee’s perception of equity or inequity would lead to higher or lower affective
commitment, respectively (Tang and Sarsfield-Baldwin, 1996; Ngo et al., 2014). PsyCap has been studied
in the context of sales organizations as a potential tool for increasing organizational commitment (Schulz
et al., 2014). Luthans and Jensen (2005) established the positive relationship between nurses’ self-
reported positive PsyCap and their “intentions to stay,” as well as their supervisors’ ratings of their
commitment to the organization’s mission statement. Furthermore, social exchange theory states that
when an employee faces unjustified barriers and unfair treatment at the workplace, they lower their
commitment to the organization (Graves and Powell, 1994; Auster, 2001). Research has shown that
affective commitment is positively related to mental health (Probst, 2003; Grawitch et al., 2007), positive
affect (Thoresen et al., 2003), zest, enthusiasm, and vitality (Lester et al., 2010). Scholars have also found
negative relations between affective commitment and measures of strain, such as psychosomatic
symptoms and physical health complaints (Richardsen et al., 2006; Wegge et al., 2006), negative affect
(Thoresen et al., 2003), and burnout (Hakanen et al., 2006; Grawitch et al., 2007). Attempts to develop
Frontiers in Psychology | [Link] 4 June 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1377 Chawla and
Sharma Enhancing Women’s Well-Being theories (Meyer and Maltin, 2010; Meyer et al., 2012) have
used the framework of self-determination theory, positing that commitment’s links with well-being can be
explained, at least in part, as an indicator that employees’ life satisfaction is being met at work. Therefore,
we hypothesize the following: Hypothesis 3. The relationship between PsyCap and well being will be
mediated by commitment. Hypothesis 4. The relationship between PGE and well-being will be mediated
by commitment. Social Support High levels of work pressures, along with the increasing responsibilities
of childcare and elder care at home, create competing demands between work and family roles that in turn
have an impact on the overall well-being of employees (Drummond et al., 2017). These challenges and
stress become more pronounced for women, because they assume the role of primary caregivers. Social
support is one of the resources that buffers the strain and stress caused by such increasing demands
(Drummond et al., 2017). Social Support is frequently linked to positive psychological and physical
outcomes. It acts as an environmental coping resource, which interacts with stress, offers a buffer for
negative feelings and enhances positive feelings (Sackey and Sanda, 2011); on the other hand, the lack of
social support leads to negative psychological states, such as anxiety, helplessness, and depression
(Cohen and Wills, 1985). In the extant literature, social support has been studied as work-based or family
based support, with most of the studies in organizational settings focusing on support provided within the
organization (Scott-Ladd et al., 2010). There are differences in requirement of social support for men and
women (Sackey and Sanda, 2011). Especially in the case of women, social support, both work and family
related, may play an important role in ensuring their well being. Therefore, for the purpose of this study,
we have defined social support as “the help, encouragement, assistance and other benefits in managing
responsibilities at home and work, as received from spouse, extended family, friends, supervisor and
coworkers” (Marcinkus et al., 2007). Based on the foregoing discussion, we hypothesize that: Hypothesis
5a. Social Support moderates the relationship between PsyCap and well-being, such that high social
support leads to greater well-being. Hypothesis 5b. There is a significant difference between the
moderating role of social support in PsyCap and well-being among menandwomen. Hypothesis 5c. The
moderating effect of social support between PsyCap and well-being is stronger for women than men.
Hypothesis 6a. Social Support moderates the relationship between PGE and well-being, such that high
social support leads to greater well-being. Hypothesis 6b. There is a significant difference between the
moderating role of social support in PGE and well-being among menandwomen. Hypothesis 6c. The
moderating effect of social support between PGE and well-being is stronger for women than men. The
study’s conceptual model is presented in Figure 1. MATERIALS AND METHODS Participants and
Procedures The sample of participants for the study was drawn employing a stratified random sampling
technique. The companies were selected from the list of the top 100 companies ranked in the Great Place
To WorkR , India, 2016, which among other criteria takes into account trust, pride, and the extent to
which employees expect to be treated fairly1. From these private sector companies, the employees (men
and women) from the middle and senior levels of management were selected as a sample. The companies’
human resource departments were approached for their consent for data collection and were told the
context of the study. The companies were selected from service industries comprising banking and
financial services, IT/ITes, Telecom, consulting, and fast-moving consumer f irms. All the companies
were similar in their work culture and the type and number of employees. Since gender equity was
considered to be a sensitive subject by the organizations, they agreed to participate in the survey on the
condition of anonymity. After the consent of the HR managers, a personal survey method was adopted for
data collection. The interested employees were assembled at a scheduled time. After briefing the
participants about the purpose of the study and obtaining their informed consent, the questionnaires were
distributed, and the respondents were requested to fill in the questionnaires with genuine responses.
Multiple meetings were held at the 18 selected companies from which data were collected from 25–30
managers per company. A random sampling method was adopted to collect data from a representative
sample of 449 employees. However, only 433 completed the measures, resulting in a response rate of
96.65% with 202 female respondents (46.7%) and231malerespondents(53.3%). 20.4% respondents were
from the banking/financial services industry, 20.1% from the IT/ITes industry, 16.7% from the telecom
industry, 13.8% from the consulting industry, 12.4% from the retail industry, 11.1% from
1[Link] to-achieving-a-great-
workplace (accessed on July 20, 2016). FIGURE 1 | Conceptual model. Frontiers in Psychology |
[Link] 5 June 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1377 Chawla and Sharma Enhancing Women’s
Well-Being other industries, and 5.5% from the FMCG/consumer goods industry. The average age of the
participants was 36.2 years, and the average work experience was 13.08 years. The average time taken by
the respondents was 15 min. This method, though time consuming, had the advantage of seeking
informed consent, establishing rapport, standardizing the procedure and instructions, and clarifying
doubts on the spot, resulting in a higher response rate (96.65%) compared to an impersonal mail survey.
The data were collected with the objective of assessing the role of perceived gender equity and
psychological capital in well-being for both men and women to study gender differences, if any.
Measures Standardized measures were used, and all the measures were tested for their reliability and
validity on the study sample. These results are reported later. Psychological Capital Psychological Capital
Questionnaire (PCQ-12) by Luthans et al. (2007) has been used to measure the four dimensions of
PsyCap: hope, self-efficacy, resilience, and optimism. The scale has demonstrated reliability and validity
in previous research (Avey et al., 2008). The scale is a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). Its Cronbach’s alpha on the present study sample was 0.995 Perceived
Gender Equity The PGEscale by SharmaRadha(2013) is comprised of 29 items. Some of the sample items
are “both males and females in the organization are selected for leadership roles” and “management’s
organizational policy reflects commitment toward fair treatment of both male and female employees.”
The ratings were made on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 6 (always true). A high
score indicates high perceived gender equity. The scale has been used in previous studies and has been
found valid and reliable (Sharma and Sharma, 2015). Its Cronbach’s alpha on the study sample is 0.989.
Commitment Employees’ affective commitment to the organization was assessed using Meyer and
Allen’s (1997) 8-item measure of the Organizational Commitment Scale. Responses to each item were
made on a 6-point scale with anchors labeled from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). Its
Cronbach’s alpha on the study sample is 0.944. Social Support The social support received was measured
using the social support scale developed by Marcinkus et al. (2007), which measures work-based social
support and personal social support. It asked respondents to rate “how much do each of the following help
you to balance your work and non-work activities”; the seven sources of support included: spouses,
extended family, supervisors, and others. Respondents rated each source of support on a 6-point Likert
scale ranging from “none” to “a great deal.” A high score indicates high social support. Its Cronbach’s
alpha on the study sample is 0.933. Well-Being This was measured using the 20-item item Positive and
Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988) and the 5-item Satisfaction With Life Scale
(Diener et al., 1985). Participants rated all of the items on these two scales on a 6-point Likert scale, in
which a score of 1 indicated slight or no experience of the emotion and a score of 6 reflected an intense
experience of the emotion. The Satisfaction With Life Scale consists of f ive unidirectional attitude
expressions. Participants rated their agreement with the expressions on a 6-point Likert scale ranging
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). A high score indicates the experience of more positive
emotions and a higher satisfaction with life. Its Cronbach’s alpha on the study sample is 0.929. Control
Variables Based on earlier studies, age, work experience, marital status, and the number of children were
treated as control variables due to their possible confounding effect on the study variables. RESULTS
AND ANALYSIS The results were analyzed for the total sample of 433 respondents and also for male
and female respondents using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (IBM SPSS, version 21) and
the Analysis of Moments Structure (AMOS), version 20.0. The analysis followed a four-step process: (1)
descriptive analysis was carried out to determine the means and standard deviations (2) factorial
invariance was established; as we were measuring constructs across two groups (men and women), it was
first of all essential to validate that the factor structure and loadings were sufficiently equivalent across
groups (Vandenberg and Lance, 2000) (3) scale analysis and measurement model analysis for each
measurement instrument was completed through CFA to ensure its reliability and validity (Byrne, 2001)
(4) path model analysis using structural equation modeling (SEM) was completed, and partial least
squares techniques involving maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) were used. For comparing the
differences between men and women for hypotheses 1a, 1b, 1c, 2a, 2b, 2c, 5a, 5b, 5c, 6a, 6b, and 6c, we
carried out multi-group analysis (Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 1998). Basic Statistics and Correlations
Means, standard deviations, and correlations among variables are reported in Tables 1A–C. The
correlation matrix was analyzed in the context of the hypothesized model. These indicate hypothesized
positive relationships between PsyCap and commitment, PsyCap andsocial support, PsyCap and well-
being, PGE and commitment, PGE and social support, and PGE and well-being, all of which are
statistically significant (p < 0.01). Factorial Invariance A factorial invariance test was done to establish
the equivalence of male and female data, in order to determine whether the instruments can be used and
compared across the two groups (Vandenberg and Lance, 2000). In order to establish this, we Frontiers in
Psychology | [Link] 6 June 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1377 ChawlaandSharma
EnhancingWomen’sWell-Being TABLE1A|Means,standarddeviations,andintercorrelationsamong
studyvariables. Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 Variables [Link] 4.1 1.474 1 [Link]
4.11 1.44 0.484∗∗ 1 [Link] 3.746 1.409 0.749∗∗ 0.642∗∗ 1 [Link] 3.37 1.423

∗∗p0.70,whichisstatisticallysignificant (Table4A). The convergent validitywas established, as each of

0.251∗∗ 0.702∗∗ 0.334∗∗ 1 [Link]-being 4.361 1.16 0.585∗∗ 0.082∗∗ 0.514∗∗ −0.056 1

the constructs reported a value greater than0.50 for the averagevarianceextracted(AVE)

(Russell,1978).Aspresentedin TABLE2|Establishingfactorial invariance. Variables Typeof model Chi
Square value p-value∗ Chi Square difference p-value∗ CFI Psychological capital U 168.33 0.14 24.41
0.08 0.991 C 192.75 0.21 0.99 Perceivedgender equity U 663.19 0.27 22.05 0.28 0.967 C 685.24 0.15
0.967 Commitment U 18.07 0.11 1.63 0.95 0.998 C 19.71 0.34 0.999 Socialsupport U 17.19 0.24 16.07
0.14 0.998 C 33.19 0.17 0.994 Well-being U 497.58 0.21 27.82 0.07 0.963 C 525.41 0.25 0.962
UisunconstrainedmodelandCisconstrainedmodel.∗p0.90) CFI (>0.90) RMSEA (0.90)
Psychologicalcapital 1.934 0.024 0.992 0.994 0.047 0.964 Perceivedgenderequity 2.969 0.049 0.971
0.975 0.068 0.9 Subjectivewell-being 2.975 0.063 0.963 0.968 0.068 0.916 Commitment 2.196 0.021
0.993 0.997 0.053 0.99 Socialsupport 1.928 0.031 0.993 0.997 0.046 0.989 FrontiersinPsychology|
[Link] 7 June2019|Volume10|Article1377 ChawlaandSharma EnhancingWomen’sWell-
Being TABLE3B|Modelfit indices. Model CMIN/ DF(0.90) CFI (>0.90) RMSEA (0.90) Model1 1.985
0.024 0.951 0.963 0.047 0.964 Model2 2.415 0.173 0.931 0.935 0.057 0.765 TABLE4A|
Reliability,averagevarianceextracted(AVE),maximumshared
variance(MSV),andaveragevarianceshared(ASV). Construct Reliability AVE MSV ASV
Psychologicalcapital 0.995 0.981 0.57 0.322 Perceivedgenderequity 0.989 0.759 0.536 0.297
Careersuccess 0.995 0.991 0.294 0.226 Subjectivewellbeing 0.929 0.868 0.437 0.2 Commitment 0.944
0.737 0.57 0.335 Socialsupport 0.933 0.7 0.536 0.18
Table4B,discriminantvaliditywasestablishedasthefollowing three
conditionsweremet:maximumsharedvariance (MSV) wasgreater
thantheaveragesharedvariance(ASV),MSVwas lessthanASVandASVlessthanAVE,andtherootofaverage
varianceextractedforeachconstructwasgreaterthantheinter constructcorrelation(Lucasetal.,1996). Two
tests, namelyHarman’s single factor test (Harman, 1976;Podsakoffet al., 2003)andcommonlatent factor
(CLF) analysis(LindellandWhitney,2001),wereemployedtocheckfor
commonmethodbias,asalltheparticipantsrespondedthrough asinglesurvey [Link]’ssingle
factor test, an exploratory factor analysis was performed to checkwhether a single factor couldexplain
themajorityof the variance in the data. The test results confirmed that a single factorwas not accounting
for the largevariance, therebyconfirmingthat commonmethodbiaswasnotpresent (KonradandLinnehan,
1995).Also,CLFanalysiswascarriedout totest forcommon methodbias. CLFcaptured the commonvariance
among all [Link] model
andthenconnectedtoallobserveditems inthemodel. Then the standardized regressionweights of the
constrained modelwerecomparedtothestandardizedregressionweightsof
[Link]
betweentheconstrainedandunconstrainedmodelwaslessthan
0.20foreachofthepaths(LindellandWhitney,2001);therefore,
weconcludethattheissueofcommonmethodbiasisabsent. PathAnalysis The structural
pathmodelwasdevelopedonthebasisof the [Link]
thevariablesweretestedonthebasisoftheregressionestimates for theacceptedstructuralpathmodel as
reportedinTable5. Themodelwas assessedusingvariousfit indices (reported in Figure2).All
thehypotheseswere tested for the full sample, maleandfemalemanagersseparately, andacomparisonusing
multi-groupanalysistoseeifthereareanysignificantdifferences
betweenmenandwomenforeachoftherelationswasconducted.
ThestructuralmodelforthefullsampleisshowninFigure2.
Aspredictedinhypothesis1(a),asignificantpositiveimpactof PsyCaponwell-
beingisobservedforthefullsample(β=0.492, p< 0.001 [95% bias-corrected bootstrap CI 0.11,0.22]), while
thedirect effect betweenPsyCapandwell beingwas also significant (B=0.411, SE=0.04,
p<ZSSforwomen,W3denotesthepathwell-being< ZPSYCAP for men, M2 denotes the path well-being
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declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that
could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Copyright © 2019 Chawla and Sharma. This is an
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