CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS 3. BY DATA HANDLING 1.3 Storage Devices.

- Store data or programs.

1. BY SIZE 3.1 Analog Computer - Primary Storage: RAM (temporary, volatile), ROM
- Processes data in a continuous form. (permanent).
1.1 Supercomputer Used for simulations and scientific - Secondary Storage: HDD, SSD, optical discs, flash drives.
- Most powerful computers in terms of measurements. 1.4 Processing Unit.
processing speed and memory. Used 3.2 Digital Computer - The “brain” of the computer.
for complex scientific calculations and - Processes data in binary form (0s and - CPU (Central Processing Unit). Executes instructions,
simulations. 1s). Most modern computers are consists of:
1.2 Mainframe Computer digital. - ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)-performs calculations and logic
- Large, powerful systems used by 3.3 Hybrid Computer operations.
organizations for bulk data processing - Combines features of both analog and - CU (Control Unit)-directs the flow of instructions.
and mission-critical applications. digital computers. - GPU (Graphics Processing Unit). Handles graphics and
1.3 Minicomputer parallel processing.
- Mid-sized computers that are smaller 4. BY FUNCTIONALITY 2. Software
than mainframes but larger than - Programs and instructions that tell the hardware what to
microcomputers. Often used for 4.1 Workstation do.
process control and scientific research - High-performance desktop designed 2.1 System Software.
(less common today). for technical or scientific applications. - Operating Systems (Windows, macOS, Linux)
1.4 Microcomputer 4.2 Server - Utility Programs (antivirus, file management tools)
- Common personal computers for - Provides services or resources to other 2.2 Application Software.
general use. computers over a network. - Software designed to perform specific tasks.
4.3 Embedded System - Examples: Microsoft Word, Excel, Photoshop, web
2. BY PURPOSE - Built into another device to control its browsers, games.
functions. 3. Peopleware
2.1 General-Purpose Computer - The human aspect of computing — the people who use and
- Designed to perform a wide variety of COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM manage computer systems.
tasks. Can run different programs for 1.1 End users
various needs. 1. Hardware - People who operate the computer for work, study, or
2.2 Special-Purpose Computer - Physical component of the computer leisure.
- Designed for a specific task or than can be touched. 1.2 IT professionals
application. Highly efficient in its field. 1.1 Input Devices. - Programmers, system administrators, engineers, data
- Used to enter data into the computer. analysts.
1.2 Output Devices. Data
- Display or present information from - raw facts and figures processed by the computer to produce
the computer. information.
- Data-Unprocessed facts (e.g. numbers, - is the foundation for data  Divide 5 by 2 → Quotient = 2, Remainder = 1
text) representation in computers and  Divide 2 by 2 → Quotient = 1, Remainder = 0
- Information-Processed, organized, and digital electronics.  Divide 1 by 2 → Quotient = 0, Remainder = 1
meaningful output. 2.3 Octal Number System  Reading the remainders from bottom to top gives 1010.
DATA REPRESENTATION - is a base-8 number system.
- It uses eight digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 3.2 Binary to Decimal NS Conversion
1. NUMBER SYSTEM 7. - Write down the binary number.
- is a way to represent and express - Each digit’s place value is a power of 8 - Multiply each digit by 2 raised to the power of its position,
numbers using a consistent set of (e.g., 8^0, 8^1, 8^2). starting from 0 (rightmost digit).
symbols or digits. - It is often used to simplify the - Add up the results of these multiplications.
- uses a base (or radix) to represent representation of binary numbers by - The sum is the decimal equivalent of the binary integer.
values. grouping them into sets of three bits.
- base refers to the number of unique 2.4 Hexadecimal Number System Example: Convert 1010 binary to decimal
digits, including zero, that a system - is a base-16 number system. 3 1 0
1 ×2 +0 ×2 +0 × 2 =8+0+ 2+ 0
uses to represent numbers. - It uses sixteen digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, = 10
- most commonly used number systems 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F (where A =
are Decimal (base-10), Binary (base-2), 10, B = 11, etc.). 3.3 Decimal to Octal NS Conversion
Octal (base-8), and Hexadecimal (base- - Each digit’s place value is a power of - Divide the decimal number by 8.
16). 16 (e.g., 16^0, 16^1, 16^2). - Record the remainder (0 to 7).
- simplifies binary by representing every - Continue dividing the quotient by 8 until the quotient is 0.
2. TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEM 4 bits as one digit (0-F). - The octal equivalent is the remainders read from bottom to
2.1 Decimal Number System top.
- is a base-10 number system. 3. NUMBER SYSTEM CONVERSION
- It uses ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 METHOD Example: Convert 10 decimal to octal
and 9. 3.1 Decimal to Binary NS Conversion  Divide 10 by 8 → Quotient = 1, Remainder = 2
- Each digit’s place value is a power of - Divide the decimal number by 2.  Divide 1 by 8 → Quotient = 0, Remainder = 1
10 (e.g., 10^0, 10^1, 10^2). - Record the remainder (0 or 1).  Octal equivalent = 12 (write the remainder, read from
- It is the standard system for everyday - Continue dividing the quotient by 2 bottom to top). So, the octal equivalent of the integer part
counting and calculations. until the quotient is 0. 10 is 12.
2.1 Binary Number System - The binary equivalent is the
- is a base-2 number system. remainders read from bottom to top. 3.4 Octal to Decimal NS Conversion
- It uses two digits: 0 and 1. - - Write down the octal number.
- Each digit’s place value is a power of 2 Example: Convert 10 decimal to binary - Multiply each digit by 8 raised to the power of its position,
(e.g., 2^0, 2^1, 2^2).  Divide 10 by 2 → Quotient = 5, starting from 0 (rightmost digit).
Remainder = 0 - Add up the results of these multiplications.
- The sum is the decimal equivalent of the octal integer.
 - For each digit in the hexadecimal 1011 - B
Example: Convert 10 decimal to octal number, find its corresponding 4-bit Thus, (001111011011)2=(3 DB )16
1 0
1 x 8 +2 x 8 =8+2=10 binary equivalent and write them
down sequentially. 3.9 Binary to Octal NS Conversion
3.5 Decimal to Hexadecimal NS - Starting from the rightmost bit, divide the binary number
Conversion Example: Convert 3A hexadecimal to into groups of 3 bits.
- Divide the decimal number by 16. binary - If the number of bits is not a multiple of 3, add leading zeros
- Record the remainder (0-9 or A-F). (3)16=(0011)2 to the leftmost group.
- Continue dividing the quotient by 16 ( A)16=(1010)2 - Each 3-bit binary group corresponds to a single octal digit.
until the quotient is 0. Thus, (3 A)16=(00111010)2 - The binary-to-octal conversion for each 3-bit group is as
- The hexadecimal equivalent is the BE HEXA BE HEXA follows:
remainders read from bottom to top. 0000 0 1000 8 OCTAL BINARY EQUIVALENT
0001 1 1001 9 0 000
Example: Convert 10 decimal to 1 001
0010 2 1010 A
hexadecimal 2 010
0011 3 1011 B
 10 ÷ 16 = 0, Remainder = A (10 in 3 011
0100 4 1100 C
decimal is A in hexadecimal) 4 100
0101 5 1101 D
0110 6 1110 E 5 101
3.6 Hexadecimal to Decimal NS 6 110
0111 7 1111 F
Conversion 7 111
- Write down the hexadecimal number.
3.8 Binary to Hexadecimal NS Conversion
- Multiply each digit by 16 raised to the Example: Convert (111101101)2 to octal
- Start from the rightmost bit and divide
power of its position, starting from 0
the binary number into groups of 4 bits 111 - 7
(rightmost digit).
each. 101 - 5
- Add up the results of these
- If the number of bits isn't a multiple of 101 – 5
multiplications.
4, pad the leftmost group with leading Thus, (111101101)2=(755)8
- The sum is the decimal equivalent of
zeros.
the hexadecimal integer.
- Each 4-bit binary group corresponds to 3.10 Octal to Binary NS Conversion
a single hexadecimal digit. - Each octal digit (0-7) corresponds to a 3-bit binary number.
Example: Convert A hexadecimal to
- Replace each 4-bit binary group with - For each octal digit, replace it with its corresponding 3-bit
decimal
the corresponding hexadecimal digit. binary equivalent.
(A × 160) = (10 × 1) = 10

Example: Convert (1111011011)2to Example: Convert (153)8to binary

3.7 Hexadecimal to Binary NS Conversion
hexadecimal Break the octal number into digits: 1, 5, 3
- Each hexadecimal digit (0-9 and A-F) is
0011 - 3 Convert each digit to binary:
represented by a 4-bit binary number.
1101 - D 1 in octal = 001 in binary
5 in octal = 101 in binary - Audio and video are stored as streams - 3 ÷ 2 = 6 remainder 1
3 in octal = 011 in binary of binary values that encode sound - 6 ÷ 2 = 3 remainder 0
Thus, (153)8=(001101011)2 waves and frames. - 3 ÷ 2 = 1 remainder 1
- 1 ÷ 2 = 0 remainder 1
2. THE IMPORTANCE OF BINARY CODE - Answer: 1101
- The binary number system is the base -
of all computing systems and 3.2 Binary Converting Binary to Decimal
operations. It enables devices to store, Method: Multiply each digit by 2 raised to its place value, then
1. BINARY access and manipulate all types of sum.
- in the context of data representation, information directed to and from the Example: Convert 1010 → Decimal
refers to a number system based on CPU or memory. (1 × 2³) + (0 × 2²) + (1 × 2¹) + (0 × 2⁰) = 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 10
two symbols: 0 and 1, also known as This makes it possible to develop
the base-2 system. applications that enable users to do a 4. BINARY IN DATA REPRESENTATION
- Unlike the decimal system, which uses variety of tasks, such as the following: - Text: Each letter is represented using codes like ASCII (A =
ten digits (0–9), binary uses only two  View websites 65 → 1000001 in binary).
possible values.  Create and update documents - Images: Pixels represented by binary codes for colors.
- they are the smallest unit of data in  Access software - Audio: Sound waves converted into digital form using
computing.  Perform calculations binary values
- The importance of binary lies in the  Play games
fact that computers are electronic  View streaming video and other kinds 1. ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
devices that rely on millions (or even of graphical information - is the most common character encoding format for text
billions) of tiny switches called data in computers and on the internet. In standard ASCII-
transistors. 3. BINARY DECIMAL VS. BINARY encoded data, there are unique values for 128 alphabetic,
- Each transistor can be in one of two - Decimal (Base 10): Digits from 0–9; numeric or special additional characters and control codes.
states: each place value is a power of 10. - the binary codes were 7 bits long.
 ON, which is represented by 1 Example: 237 = (2 × 10²) + (3 × 10¹) + (7 - Today, ASCII uses 8-bit codes to maintain compatibility with
 OFF, which is represented by 0 × 10⁰). modern computers that use 8-bit bytes.
- In binary data representation: - Binary (Base 2): Digits are only 0 and - extra bit in these codes is usually set to 0.
- Text characters are represented using 1; each place value is a power of 2. - ASCII characters include uppercase and lowercase letters A
standardized codes like ASCII or Example: 1011 = (1 × 2³) + (0 × 2²) + (1 through Z, numerals 0 through 9 and basic punctuation
Unicode (e.g., the letter “A” = × 2¹) + (1 × 2⁰) = 11 in decimal. symbols.
01000001 in binary). Example word: CAT
- Images and graphics are represented 3.1 Binary Converting Decimal to Binary - C -> 67 -> 1000011
by binary codes that describe pixels, Method: Divide by 2 repeatedly and record - A -> 65 -> 1000001
colors, and brightness. remainders (bottom to top). - T -> 84 -> 1010100
Example: Convert 13 → Binary
- The word CAT is stored in memory as: every character in the Unicode
1000011 1000001 1010100 standard.
- UTF-16: A fixed-length encoding that
2. Why is ASCII important? uses two bytes for most common
- first major character encoding characters but can extend to four bytes
standard for data processing by for less common characters.
computers and other electronic - UTF-32: A fixed-length encoding that
devices. assigns four bytes to every character.
- As a standardized format for
representing information and
facilitating communication, ASCII is
important in numerous fields, including
the following:
 Computer programming.
 Data transmission protocols.
 Visual design.
 Graphic design.

1. UNICODE
- software developers can create
applications that can handle text in
multiple languages seamlessly,
promoting accessibility and inclusivity
worldwide.

- Unicode supports multiple forms of

encoding, including:
- UTF-8: A widely used variable-length
encoding system that can represent