CHAPTER 1

CURRICULUM ESSENTIALS

Module 1 - The School Curriculum and the Teacher

Lesson 1: The Curricula in Schools

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students can:
 Discuss the different curricula that exist in the schools
 Analyze the significance of curriculum and curriculum development in the
teacher’s classroom

In our current Philippine educational system, different schools are established in

different educational levels which have corresponding recommended curricula. The
educational levels are:

TESDA takes care of the technical-vocational education training

1. Basic Education
This level include Kindergarten, Grade 1 to Grade 6 for elementary, and for
secondary, Grade 7 to Grade 10, for the Junior High School and Grade 11 and
12 and for the Senior High School. Each of the levels has its specific
recommended curriculum. The new basic education levels are provided in the K
to 12 Enhanced Curriculum of 2013 of the Department of Education.

2. Technical Vocational Education

This is post-secondary technical vocational educational and training. For the
TechVoc track in SHS of Deped and TESDA work in close coordination.

3. Higher Education
This includes the Baccalaureate or Bachelor Degrees and the Graduate Degrees
(Masterate and Doctorate) which are under the regulation of the Commission on
Higher Education (CHED)

Types of Curricula In Schools

In whatever levels of schooling and in various types of learning environment,

several curricula exist. Let us find out how Allan Glatthorn (2000) as mentioned in
Bilbao, et (2008) classified these:
1. Recommended Curriculum. Almost all of the curricula found in our schools are
recommended. For Basic Education, these are recommended by the Department
of Education (DepED), for Higher Education by the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED) and Vocational Technical Education by Technical Education,
Skills Development Authority (TESDA), these three government agencies
oversee and regulate Philippine education. The recommendations come in the
form of memoranda or policy, standards and guidelines. Other professional
organizations or international bodies like UNESCO also recommends curricula in
schools.

2. Written Curriculum. This includes document based on the recommended

curriculum. They come in a form of course of study, syllabi, modules, books,
instructional guides among others. A packet of this written curriculum is the
teacher’s lesson plan. The most recent written curriculum is the K to 12 for
Philippine Basic Education.

3. Taught Curriculum. From what has been written or planned, the curriculum has
to be implemented or taught. The teacher and the learners will put life to the
written curriculum. The skill of the teacher to facilitate learning based on the
written curriculum with the aid of instructional materials and facilities will be
necessary. The taught curriculum will depend largely on the teaching style of the
teacher and the learning style of the learners.

4. Supported Curriculum is described as support materials that the teacher

needs to make learning and teaching meaningful. These include print materials
like books, charts, posters, worksheets, or non-print materials like PowerPoint
presentation, movies, slides, models, realias, mock ups and other electronic
illustrations. Supported curriculum also includes facilities where learning occurs
inside the four-walled building. These include the playground, science
laboratory, audio-visual rooms, zoo, museum, market or the plaza. These are
the places where authentic learning through direct experiences occur.

5. Assessed Curriculum. Taught and supported curricula have to evaluated to

find out if the teacher has succeeded or not in facilitating learning. In the
process of teaching and end of every lesson or teaching episode, an
assessment as learning or assessment of learning. If the process is to find the
progress of learning, then the assessed curriculum is for learning, but if it is to
find out how much has been learned or mastered, then it is assessment of
learning. In either way, such curriculum is the assessed curriculum.

6. Learned Curriculum. How do we know if the student has learned? We always

believe that if a student changed behavior, he/she has learned. For example,
from a non-reader to a reader or from not knowing to knowing or from being
disobedient to being obedient. The positive outcome of teaching is an indicator
 of learning. These are measured by tools in assessment, which can indicate the
cognitive, affective and psychomotor outcomes. Learned curriculum will also
demonstrate higher order and critical thinking and lifelong skill.

7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum. This curriculum is not deliberately planned, but has

a great impact on the behavior of the learner. Peer influence, school environment,
media, parental pressures, societal changes, cultural practices, natural calamities,
are some factors that create the hidden curriculum. Teachers should be sensitive
and aware of this hidden curriculum. Teachers must have good foresight to include
these in the written curriculum, in order to bring to the surface what are hidden.

In every teacher’s classroom, not all of these curricula may be present at one time.
Many of them are deliberately planned, like the recommended, written, taught,
supported, assessed, and learned curricula. However, a hidden curriculum is
implied, and a teacher may or may not be able to predict its influence on learning.
All of these have significant part on the life of the teacher as a facilitator of learning
and direct implication to the life of the learners.

Now that you are fully aware that there are seven types of curricula operating in
every teacher’s classroom, it is then very necessary to learn deeper and broader
about the role of the teacher in relation to the school curriculum.

Lesson 2: The Teacher As A Curricularist

The Teacher as a curricularist . . . .

1. knows the curriculum. Learning begins with knowing. The teacher as a

learner starts with knowing about the curriculum, the subject matter or the
content. As a teacher, one has to master what are included in the curriculum. It
is acquiring academic knowledge both formal (disciplines, logic) or informal
(derived from experiences, vicarious, and unintended). It is the mastery of the
subject matter. (Knower)

2. writes the curriculum. A classroom teacher takes record of knowledge

concepts, subject matter or content. These need to be written or preserved.
The teacher writes books, modules, laboratory manuals, instructional guides,
and reference materials in paper or electronic media as a curriculum writer or
reviewer. (Writer)

3. plans the curriculum. A good curriculum has to be planned. It is the role of the
teacher to make a yearly, monthly or daily plan of the curriculum. This will serve
as a guide in the implementation of the curriculum. The teacher takes into
consideration several factors in planning a curriculum. These factors include
the learners, the support material, time, subject matter or content, the desired
 outcomes, the context of the learners among others. By doing this, the teacher
becomes a curriculum planner. (Planner)

4. initiates the curriculum. In cases where the curriculum is recommended to

the schools from DepEd, CHED, TESDA, UNESCO, UNICEF or other
educational agencies for improvement of quality education, the teacher is
obliged to implement. Implementation of a new curriculum requires the open
mindedness of the teacher, and the full belief that the curriculum will enhance
learning. There will be many constraints and difficulties in doing things first or
leading, however, a transformative teacher will never hesitate to try something
novel and relevant. (Initiator)

5. innovates the curriculum. Creativity and innovation are hallmarks of an

excellent teacher. A curriculum is always dynamic, hence keeps on changing.
From the content, strategies, ways of doing, blocks of time, ways of evaluating,
kinds of students and skills of teachers, one cannot find a single eternal
curriculum that would perpetually fit. A good teacher, therefore innovates the
curriculum and thus becomes a curriculum innovator. (Innovator)

6. implements the curriculum. The curriculum that remains recommended or

written will never serve its purpose. Somebody has to implement it. As
mentioned previously, at the heart of schooling is the curriculum. It is this role
where the teacher becomes the curriculum implementor. An imlementor gives
life to the curriculum plan. The teacher is at the height of an engagement with
the learners, with support materials in order to achieve the desired outcome. It
is where teaching, guiding, facilitating skills of the teacher is expected to the
highest level. It is here where teaching as a science and an art will be
observed. It is here, where all the elements of the curriculum will come into
play. The success of a recommended, well written and planned curriculum
depends on the implementation. (Implementor)

7. evaluates the curriculum. How can one determine if the desired learning
outcomes have been achieved? Is the curriculum working? Does it bring the
desired results? What do outcomes reveal? Are the learners achieving? Are
there some practices that should be modified? Should the curriculum be
modified, terminated or continued? These are some few questions that need
the help of a curriculum evaluator. That person is the teacher. (Evaluator)

The seven different roles are those which a responsible teacher does in the
classroom everyday! Doing these multi-faceted work, qualifies teacher to be a
curricularist.
 To be a teacher is to be a curricularist even if a teacher may not equal the likes of
John Dewey, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, or Franklin Bobbit. But as a curricularist a teacher
will be knowing, writing, implementing, innovating, initiating and evaluating the curriculum
in the school and classrooms just like the role models and advocates in curriculum and
curriculum development who have shown the way.
Module 2: The Teacher as a Knower of Curriculum

Lesson 1: The School Curriculum: Definition, Nature, and Scope

Some Definitions of Curriculum

1. A planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes,

formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences
under the auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous and willful growth
in personal social competence” (Daniel Tanner, 1980)

2. A written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives,

content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth. (Pratt, 1980)

3. The contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities,

the desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an
agenda to reform society make up a curriculum. (Schubert,1987)

4. A curriculum includes “all of the experiences that individual learners have in a

program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related
specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and
research or past and present professional practices” (Hass, 1987)

5. As a programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will
attain so fas as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or
objectives. (Grundy, 1987)

6. A plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place,
a tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of
planned activities and includes all learning experiences received by students
with the guidance of the school. ( Goodland and Su, 1992)

7. As answers to three questions: 1. Whatknowlede, skills and values are most

worthwhile? 2. Why are they most worthwhile? 3. How should the young acquire
them? (Cronbeth, 1992)
Some Points of View of Other Curricularists
Since the concept and meaning of curriculum are shaped by a person’s point of
view, this has added to fragmentation, and some confusion. However, when put
together, the different definitions from confusion. However, when put together, the
different definitions from diverse points of view, would describe curriculum as dynamic
and perhaps ever changing.

Point of view about the curriculum can either be traditional or progressive according
to their philosophical, psychological and even psychological orientations. These view
can also define what a curriculum is all about.

Curriculum from Traditional Points of View

The traditional points of view of curriculum were advanced by Robert Hutchins,
Arthur Bestor, and Joseph Schwab.

 Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies” where rules of

grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education are
emphasized. The 3Rs (Reading, Writing, ‘rithmetic) should be emphasized in
basic education while liberal education should be the emphasis in college.

 Arthur Bestoras an essentialist believe that the mission of the school should be
intellectual training, hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental
intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and writing. It should include
mathematics, science, history and foreign language.

 Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of curriculum is a discipline, thus the
subject areas such as Science, Mathematics, Social Studies, English and many
more. In college, academic disciplines are labelled as humanities, sciences,
languages, mathematics among others. He coined the word discipline as a ruling
doctrine for curriculum development.

 Phillip Phenix asserts that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge

which comes from various disciplines.

Collectively from the traditional view of the theorists like Hutchins, Schwab,
Bestor and Phenix, curriculum can be defined as a field of study. Curriculum is highly
academic and is concerned with broad historical, philosophical, psychological and social
issues. From a traditional view, curriculum is mostly written documents such syllabus,
course of study, books and references where knowledge is found but is used as a
means to accomplish intended goals.
Curriculum from Progressive Points of View
On the other hand, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and list of
specific discipline do not make a curriculum. In its broadest terms, a progressive view of
curriculum is the total learning experiences of the individual. Let us look into how
curriculum is defined from a progressive point of view.

 John Dewey believes that education is experiencing. Reflective thinking is a

means that unifies curricular elements that is tested by application.

 Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbell viewed curriculum as all experiences

children have under the guidance of teachers.

 Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shore likewise defined curriculum
as sequence of potential experiences, set up in schools for the purpose of
disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.

 Colin Marsh and George Willis also viewed curriculum as all the experiences in
the classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher and also learned
by the students.

The nature of Curriculum has given rise to many interpretations, depending on a

person’s philosophical beliefs. Let us put all of these interpretations in a summary.

CURRICULUM is what is taught in school, as set of subjects, a content, a

program of studies, a set of materials, a sequence of courses, a set of performance
objectives, everything that goes within the school. It is what is taught inside and outside
of school directed by the teacher, everything planned by school, a series of experiences
undergone by learners in school or what individual learner experiences as a result of
school. In short, Curriculum is the total learning experiences of the learner, under the
guidance of the teacher.

Lesson 2: Approaches About School Curriculum

Three Ways of Approaching a Curriculum

Curriculum can be approached or seen in three ways. It can be defined as a
content, a process or an outcome. If you examine the definitions provided by the
experts in the field, there are three ways of approaching a curriculum. First, is to
approach it as content or a body of knowledge to be transmitted. Second, is to approach
it is a product or the learning outcomes desired of learners. Third, is to approach it as a
process or what actually happens in the classroom when the curriculum is practiced.

1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge

It is quite common for traditionalists to equate a curriculum as a topic outline,

subject matter, or concepts to be included in the syllabus or a books. For example,
a primary school mathematics curriculum consist of topics on addition,
multiplication, subtraction, division, distance, weight and many more. Another
example is in secondary school science that involves the study of biological
science, physical science, environmental science and earth science. Textbooks
tend to begin with biological science such are plants and animals, physical science
with the physical elements, force and motion, earth science with the layers of the
earth and environmental science with the interaction of the biological and physical
science and earth’s phenomena, climate, vegetation followed by economic activities
such as agriculture, mining industries, urbanization and so forth.

If curriculum is equated as content, then the focus will be the body of knowledge
to be transmitted to students using appropriate teaching method. There can be a
likelihood that teaching will be limited to the acquisition of facts, concepts and
principles of the subject matter, however, the content or subject matter can also be
taken as a means to an end.

All curricula have content regardless of their design or models. The fund of
knowledge is the repository of accumulated discoveries and inventions of man from
the explorations of the earth and as product of research. In most educational
setting, curriculum is anchored on a body of knowledge or discipline.

There are four ways of presenting the content in the curriculum. These are:

1. topical approach, where much contents is based on knowledge and

experience are included;
2. concept approach with fewer topics in clusters around major and sub
concepts and their interaction, with relatedness emphasized;
3. thematic approach as a combination of concepts that develops
conceptual structures and
4. modular approach that leads to complete units of instruction.

Criteria in the Selection of Content

 There are some suggested criteria in the selection of knowledge or subject
matter. (Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et al 2009)

1. Significance - Content should contribute to ideas, concepts, principles and

generalization that should attain the overall purpose of the curriculum. It is
significant if content becomes the means of developing cognitive, affective or
psychomotor skills of the learner. As a education is a way of preserving culture,
content will be significant when this will address the cultural context of the
learners.

2. Validity - The authenticity of the subject matter, forms is validity. Knowledge

becomes obsolete with the fast changing times. Thus there is a need for validity
check and verification at a regular interval, because content which maybe valid
in its original form may not continue to be valid in the current times.

3. Utility - Usefulness of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners,

who are going to use these. Utility can be relative to time. It may have been
useful in the past, but may not be useful now or in the future. Questions like:
Will I use this in my future job? Will it add meaning to my life as a lifelong
learner? Or will the subject matter be useful in solving current concerns?

4. Learnability - The complexity of the content should be within the range of

experience of the learners. This is based on the psychological principles of
learning. Appropriate organization of content standards and sequencing of
contents are two basic principles that would influence learnability.

5. Feasibilty- Can the subject content be learned within the time allowed,
resource available, expertise of the teachers and the nature of the learners?
Are there contents of learning which can be learned beyond the formal
teaching-learning engagement? Are there opportunities provided to learn
these?

6. Interest - Will the learners take interest in the content? Why? Are the contents
meaningful? What value will the contents have in the present and future life of
the learners? Interest is one of the driving force for students to learn better.

The selection of the subject matter or content, aside from the seven criteria
mentioned earlier, may include the following guide in the selection of the CONTENT.

Guide in the Selection of the Content in the Curriculum

1. Content is commonly used in the daily life.
 2. Content is appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners
3. Content is valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of the future career.
4. Content is related to other subject fields or discipline for complementation and
integration.
5. Content is important in the transfer of learning in other disciplines

BASIC Principles of Curriculum Content

In 1952, Palma proposed the principle of BASIC as a guide in addressing
CONTENT in the curriculum B.A.S.I.C refers to Balance, Articulation, Sequence,
Integration and Continuity. In organizing content or putting together subject matter,
these principles are useful as as guide.

Balance - Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth. This will
guarantee that significant contents should be covered to avoid too much or too little of
the contents needed with in the time allocation.

Articulation - As the content complexity progresses with the educational levels,

vertically or horizontally across the same discipline smooth connections or bridging
should be provided. This will assure no gaps or overlaps in the content. Seamlessness
in the content is desired and can be assured if there is articulation in the curriculum.
Thus, there is a need off team among writers and implementers of curriculum.

Sequence - The logical arrangement of the content refers to sequence or order.

This can be done vertically for deepening the content or horizontally for broadening the
same content. In both ways, the pattern usually is from easy to complex, what is known
to the unknown, what is current to something in the future.

Integration - Content in the curriculum does not stand alone or in isolation. It has
some ways of relatedness or connectedness to other contents. Contents should be
infused in other disciplines whenever possible. This will provide a wholistic or unified
view of curriculum instead of segmentation. Contents which can be integrated to other
disciplines acquire a higher premium than when isolated.

Continuity - Content when viewed as a curriculum should continuously flow as it

was before, to where it is now and where it will be in the future. It should be perennial. It
endures time. Content may not be in the same form and substance as seen in the past
since changes and developments in curriculum occur. Constant repetition,
reinforcement and enhancement of content are all elements of continuity .

2. Curriculum Approached as a Process

We have seen that the curriculum can be approached as content. On the other
hand, it can also be approached as a process. Here, a curriculum is not seen as a
physical thing or a noun, but as a verb or an action. It is the interaction among the
teachers, students and content. As a process, curriculum happens in the classroom as
the question asked by the teacher and the learning activities engaged in by the
students. It is an active process with emphasis on the context in which the processes
occurs. Used in analogy of the a recipe in a cookbook, a recipe is the content while the
ways of cooking is the process.

This section will not discuss in detail the different teaching strategies from where
learning experiences are derived. Rather, it will describe how the process as a
descriptor of curriculum is understood. The content is the substance of the curriculum,
how the contents will be communicated and learned will be addressed by the process.

To teachers, the process is very critical. This is the other side of the coin:
instruction, implementation, teaching. These three words connote the process in the
curriculum. When educators ask teachers: What curriculum are you using? Some of the
answers will be: 1. Problem based. 2. Hands-on, Mind On 3. Cooperative Learning
[Link] Curriculum [Link]-line [Link]-based and many more. These responses
approach curriculum as a Process. These are the ways of teaching, ways of managing
the content, guiding learning, methods of teaching and learning strategies of teaching or
delivery modes. In all of these, there are activities and actions that every teacher and
learner do together or learners are guided by the teacher. Some of the strategies are
time-tested traditional methods while others are emerging delivery modes.

When curriculum is approached as a PROCESS, guiding principles are presented.

1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching methods or strategies is means to

achieve the end.
2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on the
desired learning outcomes, the learners, support materials and the teacher.
3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners’ desire to develop the
cognitive, affective, psychomotor domains in each individual.
4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered.
5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which can be
described as cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. An
effective process will always result to learning outcomes.
7. Both teaching and learning are the two important processes in the
implementation of the curriculum.

3. Curriculum as a Product
Besides viewing curriculum as content that is to be transmitted, or process that
gives action using the content, it has also been viewed as a product. In other words,
product is what the students desire to achieve as a learning outcomes.

The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills
and values to function effectively and efficiently Approach. The real purpose of
education is to bring about significant changes in students’ pattern of behavior. It is
important that any statement of objectives or intended outcomes of the school should be
a statement of changes to take place in the students. Central to the approach is the
formulation of behavioural objectives stated as intended learning outcomes or desired
products so that content and teaching methods may be organized and the results
evaluated. A product of learning is operationalized as knowledge, skills, and values.

Curriculum product is expressed in form of outcomes which are referred to as the

achieved learning outcomes. There maybe several desired learning outcomes, but if the
process is not successful, then no learning outcomes will be achieved. These learned or
achieved learning outcomes are demonstrated by the person who has meaningful
experiences in the curriculum. All of these are result of planning, content and processes
in the curriculum.

Lesson 3: Curriculum Development: Processes and Models

Curriculum Development Process

Curriculum development is a dynamic process involving many different people and
procedures. Development connotes changes which is systematic. A change for the
better means alteration, modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce
positive changes, development should be purposeful, planned and progressive. Usually
it is linear and follows a logical step-by-step fashion involving the following phases:
curriculum planning, curriculum design, curriculum implementation and curriculum
evaluation. Generally, most models involve four phases.

1. Curriculum planning considers the school vision, mission and goals. It also
includes the philosophy or strong education belief of the school. All of these will
eventually be translated to classroom desired learning outcomes for the
learners.

2. Curriculum designing is the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the

selection and organization of content, the selection and organization of learning
experience or activities and the selection of the assessment procedure and tools
to measure achieved learning outcomes. A curriculum design will also include
the resources to be utilized and the statement of the intended learning
outcomes.

3. Curriculum implementing in the classroom setting or the learning environment.

The teacher ,who is the facilitator of learning, leads in putting into action the plan
which is based on the curriculum design. Together with the learners, the
curriculum design guides what will transpire in the classroom with the end in
view of achieving the intended learning outcomes. Implementing the curriculum
is where action takes place. It involves the activities that transpire in every
teacher’s classroom where learning becomes an active process.
 4. Curriculum evaluating determines the extent to which the desired outcomes
have been achieved. This procedure is on-going as in finding out the progress
of learning (formative) or the mastery of learning (summative). Along the way,
evaluation will determine the factors that have hindered or supported the
implementation. It will also pinpoint where improvement can be made and
corrective measures introduced. The result of evaluation is very important for
decision making of curriculum planners, and implementors.

Curriculum Development Process Models

1. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles

Also known as Tyler’s Rationale, the curriculum development, model
emphasizes the planning phase. This is presented in his book Basic Principles of
Curriculum and Instruction. He posited four fundamental principles which are
illustrated as answers to the following questions:

1. What education purposes should school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain
these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or
not?

Tyler’s model shows that in the curriculum development, the following

considerations should be made:

1. Purposes of the school

2. Educational experiences related to the purposes
3. Organization of the experiences
4. Evaluation of the experience

2. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach

Hilda Taba improved on Tyler’s model. She believed that teachers should
participate in developing a curriculum. As a grassroots approach Taba begins
from the bottom, rather than from the top as what Tyler proposed. She presented
seven major steps to her linear model which are the following:

1. Diagnosis of learners’ needs and expectations of the larger society

2. Formulation of learning objectives
3. Selection of learning contents
4. Organization of learning contents
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it
3. Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model
Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum
development as consisting of four steps. Curriculum is “a plan for providing sets
of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related specific
objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school center.”

1. Goals, Objectives and Domains: Curriculum planners begin by

specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives they wish
to accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum domain:
personal development, human relations, continued learning skills and
specialisation. The goals, and objectives and domains are identified and
chosen based on research findings, accreditation standards, views of the
different stakeholders.

2. Curriculum Designing: Designing of a curriculum follows where

appropriate learning opportunities are determined and how each
opportunity is provided. Will the curriculum be designed along the lines
of academic disciplines, or according to student needs and interests or
along themes? These are some of the questions that need to be
answered at this stage of the development process

3. Curriculum Implementation: A designed curriculum is now ready for

implementation. Teachers then prepare instructional plans where
instructional objectives are specified and appropriate teaching methods
and strategies are utilized to achieve the desired learning outcomes
among students.

4. Evaluation: The last step of the curriculum model is evaluation. A

comprehensive evaluation using a variety of evaluation techniques is
recommended. It should involve the total educational programme of the
school and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of instruction and the
achievement of students. Through the evaluation process, curriculum
planner and developers can determine whether or not the goals of the
school and the objectives of instruction.

All the models, utilized the processes of (1) curriculum planning, (2)
curriculum designing, (3) curriculum implementing, and (4) curriculum
evaluating.
Lesson 4: Foundations of Curriculum Development

Foundation of Curriculum

1. Philosophical Foundations
Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makers must have a
philosophy or strong belief about education and schooling and the kind of
curriculum in the teachers’ classrooms or learning environment. Philosophy of the
curriculum answers question like: What are Schools for? What subjects are
important? How should student learn? What methods should be used? What
outcomes should be achieved? Why?

The various activities in school are influenced in one way or another by a

philosophy. John Dewey influenced the use of “learning by doing”, he being a
pragmatist. Or to an essentialist, the focus on the fundamentals of reading, writing
and arithmetic are essential subjects in the curriculum.

There are many philosophies in education but will only have few to illustrate as
presented by Ornstein and Hunkins in 2004.

A. Perennialism
 Aim: To educate the rational person; cultivate intellect.
 Role: Teachers assist students to think with reason (critical thinking:
HOTS)
 Focus: Classical subject, literary analysis. Curriculum is enduring.
 Trends: Use of great books (Bible, Koran, Classics) Liberal Arts

B. Essentialism
 Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent.
 Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area.
 Focus: Essential skills of the 3Rs; Essential subjects
 Trends: Back to Basics. Excellence in Education. Cultural Literacy

C. Progressivism
 Aim: Promote democratic social living.
 Role: Teacher leads for growth and development of lifelong learners.
 Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects. [Link]-based.
 Trends: Equal opportunities for [Link] curriculum. Humanistic
education.
 D. Reconstructionisn
 Aim: To improve and reconstruct society. Education for change
 Role: Teacher acts as agent of change and reforms.
 Focus: Present and future educational landscape.
 Trends: School and curricular reform. Global education. Collaboration
and Convergence. Standards and Competencies.

2. Historical Foundations
Where is curriculum development coming from? The historical foundations will
show to us the chronological development along a timeline. Reading materials
would tell us that curriculum development started when Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)
wrote the book “The Curriculum.” Let us see how each one contributed to curriculum
development during their own time. Here are eight among the many, we consider to
have great contribution.

Persons Contribution

 Started the curriculum development

movement.
 Curriculum as a science that emphasize on
Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) students’ needs.
 Curriculum prepares learners for adult life
 Objectives and activities grouped together
when task are clarified.

 Like Bobbit, curriculum is science and

emphasizes student’s needs.
Werret Charters (1875-1952)  Objectives and activities should match.
Subject matter or content relates to
objectives.

 Curricula are purposeful activities which are

child-centered.
William Kilpartick (1875-1952)  The purpose of the curriculum is child
development and growth. The project method
was introduced by Kilpatrick where teacher
and student plan the activities.

 To Rugg, curriculum should develop the

whole child. It is child-centered.
 With the statement of objectives and related
Harold Rugg (1886-1960) learning activities, curriculum should produce
 outcomes.
 Harold Rugg emphasized social studies and
the teacher plans curriculum in advance.

 Sees curriculum as organized around social

functions of themes, organized knowledge
and learner’s interest.
Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)  Caswell believes that curriculum, instruction
and learning are interrelated.
 Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject
matter is developed around social functions
and learners’ interests.

 As one of the hallmarks of curriculum, Tyler

believes that curriculum is a science and an
extension of school’s philosophy. It is based
on students’ needs and interest.
Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)  To Tyler, curriculum is always related to
instruction. Subject matter is organized in
terms of knowledge, skills and values.
 The process emphasizes problem solving.
The curriculum aims to educate generalists
and not specialists.

 Contributed to the theoretical and

pedagogical foundations of concepts
Hilda Taba (1902-1967) development and critical thinking in social
studies curriculum.
 Helped lay the foundation for diverse student
population.

 Described how curriculum change is a

cooperative endeavor.
Peter Oliva (1992-2012)  Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute
the professional core of planners.
 Significant improvement through group
activity.

3. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

Psychological provides a basis to understand the teaching and learning
process. It unifies elements of the learning process. Questions which can be
addressed by psychological foundations of education are: How should curriculum be
organized to enhance learning? What is the optimal level of students’ participation in
learning the various contents of the curriculum? In this module we shall consider
 three groups of learning theories: behaviorism or association theories; cognitive-
information processing theories and humanistic theories (Ornstien&Hunkins, 2004).

Let us review some theories in learning related to these clusters of learning

theories.
3.1 Association and Behaviorism
3.2 Cognitive Information Processing Theory

Persons Contribution

 Father of the Classical Conditioning

Theory the S-R Theory.
 The key to learning is early years of life is
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) to train them what you want them to
become.
 S-R Theory is a foundation of learning
practice called indoctrination.

 Championed the Connection Theory

 Proposed the three laws of learning
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) - Law of readiness
- Law of exercise
- Law of effect
 Specific stimulus has specific response

 Proposed the Hierarchical Learning

Theory. Learning follows a hierarchy
Robert Gagne (1916-2002)  Behavior is based on prerequisite
conditions.
 Introduced tasking in the formulation of
objectives

Persons Contribution

 Theories of Jean Piaget

- Describes cognitive development in

terms of stages from birth to maturity
- Sensorimotor stage (0-2),
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
preoperational stage (2-7), concrete
operation stage (7-11) and formal
 operations (11 - onwards)

 Key to learning

- Assimilation (incorporation of new

experience)
- Accommodation (learning modification
and adaptation)
- Equilibration (balance between
previous and later learning)

 Theory of Lev Vygotsky

- Cultural transmission and

development
- Children could, as a result of their
interaction with society, actually
Ley Vygotsky (1896-1934)
perform certain cognitive actions prior
to arriving at developmental stage
- Learning precedes development
- Sociocultural development theory

 Key to learning

- Pedagogy creates learning processes

that lead to development
- Child is an active agent in his or her
educational process.

 Gardner’s multiple intelligences

- Humans have several different ways

Howard Gardner of processing information and these
ways are relatively independent of one
another
- Eight intelligences: linguistic,
logicomathematical, musical, spatial,
bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and naturalistic.

 Emotion contains the power to affect

Daniel Goleman action
 - Emotional Quotient

3.3 Humanistic Psychology

Persons/Symbols Contribution

 Gestalt Theory
- Learning is explained in terms of
“wholeness” of the problem.
- Human beings do not respond to
isolated stimuli but to an organization
or pattern of stimuli.

Gestalt  Key to learning

- Learning is complex and abstract
- Learners analyze the problem,
discriminate between essential and
nonessential data, and perceive
relationships.
- Learners will perceive something in
relation to the whole. What/how they
perceive is related to their previous
experiences.

 Self-actualization Theory
 Classic theory of human needs.
 A child whose basic needs are not met
will not be interested in acquiring
knowledge of the world
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)  Put importance in human emotions,
based on love an trust

 Key to learning

- Produce a healthy and happy learner

who can accomplish, grow and
actualize his or her human self.

 Nondirective and Therapeutic Learning

- Established counselling procedures

and methods for facilitating learning.
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) - Children’s perceptions, which are
 highly individualistic, influence their
learning and behaviour in class.

 Key to learning is

- Curriculum concerned with process

not product; personal needs, not
subject matter, psychological
meaning, not cognitive source.

Social Foundations of Curriculum

Persons/Symbols Contribution

 Society as a source of change

School and Society  Schools as agents of change
 Knowledge as an agent of change

 Considered two fundamental elements-

schools and civil society-to be major
John Dewey (1859-1952) topics needing attention and
reconstruction to encourage experimental
intelligence and plurality

 Wrote the book Future Shock

 Believed that knowledge should prepare
Alvin Toffler students for the future
 Suggested that in the future, parents
might have the resources to teach
prescribed curriculum from home as a
result of technology, not in spite of it.
(Home Schooling)
 Foresaw schools and students worked
creatively, collaboratively, and
independent of their age.

In summary, the foundation upon which curriculum is based are educational

philosophies, historical developments, psychological explanations, and societal
influences. All of these foundations are interrelated to each.
Reference

Bilbao, P.B., Corpuz, B.B. & Dayagbil, F.T. (2014). Curriculum development for
teachers. Lorimar Publishing, INC. Quezon City, Metro Manila.