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Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2 & 3

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PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE

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Where it comes from What you should be able to do Check your skills
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IGCSE® / O Level Mathematics Perform long division on numbers 1 Using long division, calculate:
and find the remainder where a 4998 ÷ 14
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necessary.
b 10 287 ÷ 27

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c 4283 ÷ 32

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IGCSE / O Level Mathematics Sketch straight-line graphs. 2 Sketch the graph of y = 2 x − 5.

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Why do we need to study algebra?

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−b ± b2 − 4ac
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You have previously learnt the general formula, x = , for solving quadratic

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2a
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equations. Versions of this formula were known and used by the Babylonians nearly

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4000 years ago.

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WEB LINK
It took until the 16th century for mathematicians to discover formulae for solving cubic
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equations, ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 , and quartic equations, ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e = 0. Explore the Polynomials
(These formulae are very complicated and there is insufficient space to include them here and rational functions
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but you might wish to research them on the internet.) station on the
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Underground
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Mathematicians then spent many years trying to discover a general formula for Mathematics website.
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2
solving quintic equations, ax5 + bx 4 + cx 3 + dx 2 + ex + f = 0. Eventually, in 1824, a
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mathematician managed to prove that no general formula for this exists.

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In this chapter you will develop skills for factorising and solving cubic and quartic
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equations. These types of equations have various applications in the real world. For
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example, cubic equations are used in thermodynamics and fluid mechanics to model the
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pressure/volume/temperature behaviour of gases and fluids.

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You will also learn about a new type of function, called the modulus function.
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1.1 The modulus function

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The modulus of a number is the magnitude of the number without a sign attached.
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The modulus of 3 is written 3 .

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3 = 3 and −3 = 3.
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It is important to note that the modulus of any number (positive or negative) is always a
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positive number.
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The modulus of a number is also called the absolute value.

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The modulus of x, written as x , is defined as:

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 x if x ù 0
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x =
 − x if x , 0
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Chapter 1: Algebra

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EXPLORE 1.1

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You are given these eight statements:

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a+b = a + b

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1

2 a−b = a − b
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3 ab = a × b

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a
4 = a ÷ b , if b ≠ 0

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b
C

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5 a = a2
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n
= a n , where n is a positive integer

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6 a
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a+b ø a + b
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7
U

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8 a−b ø a−c + c−b

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You must decide whether a statement is

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Always true
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Sometimes true Never true
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• If you think that a statement is either always true or never true, you must give a clear explanation to justify
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your answer.
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3
• If you think that a statement is sometimes true you must give an example of when it is true and an example
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of when it is not true.

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The statement x = k , where k ù 0 , means that x = k or x = − k .

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This property is used to solve equations that involve modulus functions.

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If you are solving equations of the form ax + b = k , you can solve the equations using
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ax + b = k and ax + b = − k
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If you are solving harder equations of the form ax + b = cx + d , you can solve the
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equations using
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ax + b = cx + d and ax + b = −( cx + d )
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When solving these more complicated equations you must always check that your answers
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satisfy the original equation. FAST FORWARD

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You will see why it is

necessary to check your
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answers when you learn

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how to sketch graphs

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of modulus functions
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in Section 1.2.
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Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2 & 3

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WORKED EXAMPLE 1.1

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Solve:

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a 2x − 1 = 3 b x − 4 = 2x + 1
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Answer

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a 2x − 1 = 3

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2 x − 1 = 3 or 2 x − 1 = −3
2x = 4 2 x = −2

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x=2 x = −1

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CHECK: 2 × 2 − 1 = 3 ✓ and 2 × ( −1) − 1 = 3 ✓

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The solution is: x = −1 or x = 2

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b x − 4 = 2x + 1

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x − 4 = 2 x + 1 or x − 4 = −(2 x + 1)

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x = −5 3x = 3
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x =1 x =1
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CHECK: −5 − 4 = 2 × ( −5) + 1 ⨯ and 1 − 4 = 2 × 1 + 1 ✓
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The solution is: x = 1

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4
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EXPLORE 1.2
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2 2 2
Using a = a 2 you can write a 2 − b2 as a − b .
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Using the difference of two squares you can now write:

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a 2 − b2 = (a − b )( a + b )
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Using the previous statement, explain how these three important results can be obtained:
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(The symbol ⇔ means ‘is equivalent to’.)

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a = b ⇔ a 2 = b2
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•
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a . b ⇔ a 2 . b2
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•
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• a , b ⇔ a 2 , b2 , if b ≠ 0 .
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Worked example 1.2 shows you how to solve equations of the form cx + d = ex + f .
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KEY POINT 1.1

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To solve equations of the form cx + d = ex + f we can use the rule:

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2 2
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a = b ⇔a =b
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Chapter 1: Algebra

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WORKED EXAMPLE 1.2

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Solve the equation 3x + 4 = x + 5 .

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Answer
Method 1
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3x + 4 = x + 5

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3x + 4 = x + 5 or 3x + 4 = −( x + 5)
2x = 1 4x = −9

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or
1 9

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x= x=− er
2 4
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✓, 3×−  +4 = − +5
1 1 9 9

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CHECK: 3 × +4 = +5 ✓
2 2  4 4
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1 9
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Solution is: x = or x = −

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2 4

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Method 2

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3x + 4 = x + 5
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-R Use a = b ⇔ a 2 = b2.
(3x + 4) = ( x + 5)
2 2
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9x + 24x + 16 = x 2 + 10 x + 25
2
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8x 2 + 14x − 9 = 0
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Factorise.
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5
(2 x − 1)(4x + 9) = 0
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1 9
x= or x = −
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2 4
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WORKED EXAMPLE 1.3

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Solve x + 3 + x + 5 = 10.
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Answer
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x + 3 + x + 5 = 10 Subtract x + 5 from both sides.

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x + 3 = 10 − x + 5 Split the equation into two parts.

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x + 3 = 10 − x + 5 (1)
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x + 3 = x + 5 − 10 (2)
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Using equation (1):

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−7 + x + x + 5 = 0
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x+5 = 7−x Split this equation into two parts.

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x + 5 = 7 − x or x + 5 = −(7 − x )
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2x = 2 or 0 = −12 0 = −12 is false.

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x =1
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Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2 & 3

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Using equation (2):

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x + 5 = x + 13 Split this equation into two parts.

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x + 5 = x + 13 or x + 5 = −( x + 13)
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0=8 or 2 x = −18 0 = 8 is false.
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x = −9

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The solution is x = 1 or x = −9.

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EXERCISE 1A
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1 Solve.

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3x − 2
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a 4x − 3 = 7 b 1 − 2x = 5 c =4

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5
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x + 2 2x 1df

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x
d +2 =3 e − =2 f 2 x + 7 = 3x 2de

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3 3 5
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3de

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2 Solve.
2x + 1 3x − 1 x+2 4de
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5a
a =5 b
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=1 c 2− =5
x−2 x+5 x−3
6
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x+ x+4 =8 8 − 1 − 2x = x 7
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d 3x − 5 = x + 1 e f
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3 Solve.
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6
a 2x + 1 = x b 3 − 2 x = 3x c 2x − 5 = 1 − x
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1
d 3x + 5 = 1 + 2 x e x −5 = 2 x +1 f 3 2x − 1 = x−3
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2
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4 Solve.
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x2 − 2 = 7 5 − x2 = 3 − x x2 + 2x = x + 2
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a b c
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d x2 − 3 = 2x + 1 e 2 x 2 − 5x = 4 − x f x2 − 7x + 6 = 6 − x
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5 Solve the simultaneous equations.

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a x + 2y = 8 b 3x + y = 0
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x+2 + y=6 y = 2x2 − 5

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2
6 Solve the equation 5 x − 1 + 9 x − 1 − 2 = 0.
-C

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7 a Solve the equation x 2 − 5 x + 6 = 0 .

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b Use graphing software to draw the graph of y = x 2 − 5 x + 6 .

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c Name the equation of the line of symmetry of the curve.

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8 Solve the equation 2 x + 1 + 2 x − 1 = 3.

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9 Solve the equation 3x − 2 y − 11 + 2 31 − 8x + 5 y = 0 .

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Chapter 1: Algebra

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1.2 Graphs of y = f(x) where f(x) is linear

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y = |x|
Consider drawing the graph of y = x .

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First draw the line y = x .
am x

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O
Then reflect, in the x-axis, the part of the line that is below the x-axis.
-C

e ss
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WORKED EXAMPLE 1.4

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1
Sketch the graph of y = x − 1 , showing the points where the graph meets the axes.

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2
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1
Use your graph to express x − 1 in an alternative form.

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Answer

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First sketch the graph of y = x − 1. y
2 1

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1 y= x –1
The line has gradient and a y-intercept of −1. 2

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2
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You then reflect in the x-axis the part of the line that is below the x-axis. 1
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1
The graph shows that x − 1 can be written as:
-C

2
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O 2 x
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 1 x −1 if x ù 2
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 2 −1
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1
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x −1 =  7
2  −  1 x − 1  if x , 2
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  2 
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In Worked example 1.1, we found that there were two roots, x = −1 and x = 2, to the y
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y = |2x – 1|
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equation 2 x − 1 = 3. 4
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3 y=3
These can also be found graphically by finding the x-coordinates of the points of
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intersection of the graphs of y = 2 x − 1 and y = 3 as shown. 2

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1
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am

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–2 –1 O 1 2 3 x
–1
-C

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Also in Worked example 1.1, we found that there was only one root, y
y = 2x + 1
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x = 1, to the equation x − 4 = 2 x + 1.
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6
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This root can be found graphically by finding the x-coordinates of 5

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y = |x – 4|
the points of intersection of the graphs of y = x − 4 and 4
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y = 2 x + 1 as shown.
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3
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2
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1
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–1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
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–1
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Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2 & 3

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EXERCISE 1B

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1 Sketch the graphs of each of the following functions showing the coordinates of the points where the graph

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meets the axes. Express each function in an alternative form.
1
am

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a y= x+2 b y = 3−x c y = 5− x
2
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2 a Complete the table of values for y = x − 3 + 2 .

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x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
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y 5 3

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b Draw the graph of y = x − 3 + 2 for 0 ø x ø 6 .
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c Describe the transformation that maps the graph of y = x onto the graph of y = x − 3 + 2.
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3 Describe fully the transformation (or combination of transformations) that maps the graph of y = x onto

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each of these functions.

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a y = x +1 + 2 b y = x−5 −2 c y=2− x
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d y = 2x − 3 e y = 1− x + 2 f y =5−2 x

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4 Sketch the graphs of each of the functions in question 3. For each graph, state the coordinates of the vertex.
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5 f( x ) = 5 − 2 x + 3 for 2 ø x ø 8
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Find the range of function f .

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8 6 a Sketch the graph of y = 2 x − 2 + 1 for −2 , x , 6, showing the coordinates of the vertex and the
y-intercept.
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b On the same diagram, sketch the graph of y = x + 2.

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c Use your graph to solve the equation 2 x − 2 + 1 = x + 2 .

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7 a Sketch the graph of y = x − 2 for −3 , x , 6 , showing the coordinates of the vertex and the y-intercept.
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b On the same diagram, sketch the graph of y = 1 − 2 x .

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c Use your graph to solve the equation x − 2 = 1 − 2 x .

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8 a Sketch the graph of y = x + 1 + x − 1 .

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b Use your graph to solve the equation x + 1 + x − 1 = 4.

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1.3 Solving modulus inequalities

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Two useful properties that can be used when solving modulus inequalities are:
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a ø b ⇔ −b ø a ø b and a ù b ⇔ a ø − b or a ù b
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The following examples illustrate the different methods that can be used when solving
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modulus inequalities.
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Chapter 1: Algebra

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WORKED EXAMPLE 1.5

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Solve 2 x − 5 , 3.

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Answer
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Method 1: Using algebra

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2x − 5 , 3

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−3 , 2 x − 5 , 3

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2 , 2x , 8
1, x , 4

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Method 2: Using a graph y

y = |2x – 5|

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The graphs of y = 2 x − 5 and y = 3 intersect at the points A and B.

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 2 x − 5 if x ù 2 1
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 2 3 y=3

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2x − 5 =  A B

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 −(2 x − 5) if x , 2 1
id

2
 2

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At A, the line y = −(2 x − 5) intersects the line y = 3. 1

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−(2 x − 5) =3 O x
1 2 3 4 5
-C

−2 x + 5 =3 –1
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2x =2
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x =1
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At B, the line y = 2 x − 5 intersects the line y = 3.

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2x − 5 = 3
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2x = 8
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x=4
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To solve the inequality 2 x − 5 , 3 you must find where the graph of the function y = 2 x − 5 is below the graph
R

of y = 3.
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Hence, 1 , x , 4.
id

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WORKED EXAMPLE 1.6

-C

Solve the inequality 2 x − 1 ù 3 − x .

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Answer
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Method 1: Using algebra

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2x − 1 ù 3 − x
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Use a ù b ⇔ a 2 ù b2.
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(2 x − 1)2 ù (3 − x )2
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4x 2 − 4x + 1 ù 9 − 6x + x 2
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3x 2 + 2 x − 8 ù 0 Factorise.
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(3x − 4)( x + 2) ù 0
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-C

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Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2 & 3

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y = 3x2 + 2x – 8

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4
Critical values are −2 and .

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3
4

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br
Hence, x ø −2 or x ù . + +
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−2
− 3
-C

Method 2: Using a graph

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The graphs of y = 2 x − 1 and y = 3 − x intersect at

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the points A and B.
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 2 x − 1 if x ù 1

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 2
2x − 1 = 

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 −(2 x − 1) if x , 1 er
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 2

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x − 3 if x ù 3
3−x = x−3 = 
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C
 −( x − 3) if x , 3
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At A, the line y = −(2 x − 1) intersects the line y = −( x − 3). y

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2x − 1 = x − 3 8 y = |2x – 1|

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x = −2
7
am

At B, the line y = 2 x − 1 intersects the line y = −( x − 3).

-R
6
2 x − 1 = −( x − 3)
-C

y = |3 – x|
s

3x = 4 5
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A
4
y

4
Pr

x=
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10 3 3
To solve the inequality 2 x − 1 ù 3 − x you must find where
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2
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the graph of the function y = 2 x − 1 is above the graph

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B
1
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of y = 3 − x .
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4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
Hence, x ø − 2 or x ù .
R

3
C
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EXERCISE 1C
id

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1 y
-R

8
y = |x – 1|
-C

7
s
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6
y

Pr

5
op

4
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C

3
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2
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y = 2|x – 4|
1
i

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–1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
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The graphs of y = x − 1 and y = 2 x − 4 are shown on the grid.

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Write down the solution to the inequality x − 1 . 2 x − 4 .

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id

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br

2 a On the same axes, sketch the graphs of y = 2 x − 1 and y = 4 − x − 1 .

am

-R

b Solve the inequality 2 x − 1 . 4 − x − 1 .

-C

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Chapter 1: Algebra

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U

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3 Solve. (You may use either an algebraic method or a graphical method.)

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a 2x + 1 ø 3 b 2−x ,4 c 3x − 2 ù 7

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id

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br
4 Solve. (You may use either an algebraic method or a graphical method.)
am

-R
a 2x − 5 ø x − 2 b 3 + x . 4 − 2x c x − 7 − 2x ø 4
5 Solve. (You may use either an algebraic method or a graphical method.)
-C

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a x + 4 , 2x b 2x − 5 . 3 − x c 3x − 2 ø 1 − 3x

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Pr
x −1 .2 x − 4 3 3 − x ù 2x − 1 3x − 5 , 2 2 − x
op

d e f
6 Solve 2 x + 1 + 2 x − 1 . 5.

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1.4 Division of polynomials er

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A polynomial is an expression of the form

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an x n + an −1x n −1 + an − 2 x n − 2 + … + a2 x 2 + a1x1 + a0

C
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where:

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● x is a variable

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br

● n is a non-negative integer
am

-R
● the coefficients an , an −1, an − 2 , … , a2 , a1, a0 are constants
an is called the leading coefficient and an ≠ 0
-C

●
s
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● a0 is called the constant term.

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Pr

The highest power of x in the polynomial is called the degree of the polynomial.
op

11

For example, 5x 3 − 6x 2 + 2 x − 6 is a polynomial of degree 3.

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C

rs
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In this section you will learn how to use long division to divide a polynomial by another
ie

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polynomial. Alternative methods are possible, this is shown in Worked example 1.10.
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DID YOU KNOW?

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C
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Polynomial functions can be used to predict the mass of an animal

ew

from its length.

id

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br
am

-R
-C

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WORKED EXAMPLE 1.7

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Pr
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Divide x 3 + 2 x 2 − 11x + 6 by x − 2 .
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C

Answer
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Step 1:
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x2
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Divide the first term of the polynomial by x:

)
x − 2 x + 2 x 2 − 11x + 6
3
R

x3 ÷ x = x2 .
C

x3 − 2x2
ge

Multiply ( x − 2) by x 2 : x 2 ( x − 2) = x 3 − 2 x 2 .
w

2
ie

4x − 11x
id

Subtract: ( x 3 + 2 x 2 ) − ( x 3 − 2 x 2 ) = 4x 2 .
ev
br

Bring down the −11x from the next column.

am

-R
-C

s
es

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