Sensors and Actuators for

Manufacturing

Smart factories, Sensors and actuators for smart factory: Active and passive sensors,
analog and digital sensors, pressure, flow, temperature, position, strain sensors,
nuclear sensor, MEMS and NEMS sensors, Smart sensors and actuators, Roles of
smart sensors and actuators
Position Sensors
• The position sensor is a device used to detect an object’s position such as doors, valves, etc.

• The sensed signal is converted into electrical signals which are suitable for processing, transmission, or control.

• These sensors are equipped with location tracking systems that help to determine the precise positions of work-in-
progress, tools, and other production-relevant items within the facility.

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Position Sensors
• The position sensors can be contact type or non-contact type:

• Contact sensors – these measure the position of an object through

direct contact with the sensors.

• It is a device that uses a transducer to sense mechanical contact and gives an output signal when
the measured object comes in contact with the sensor.

• The commonly used contact sensors are the potentiometer, strain gauge, etc.

• They are commonly used in robotics to detect the change in position, velocity, acceleration or
force/torque between the manipulator’s joints and the end effector

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Potentiometer

• Potentiometer is the simplest type of position sensor.

• It is a three terminal resistor having either sliding or rotating contact

that forms an adjustable voltage divider.

• The resistance is varied manually to control the flow of electric current

and hence, producing a voltage drop in accordance with Ohm’s law.

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Ravi Kant, Hema Gurung, eds. Industry 4.0: Concepts, Processes and Systems. CRC Press, 2023.
Working Principle
• Potentiometers work by varying the position of the sliding contact/wiper (b) over the uniform
resistance “R”.
• The potentiometer has two input terminals, namely “a” and “c,” source voltage “ Vin” that is
applied across the entire resistance length, and the output voltage, representing the voltage drop
across the fixed and sliding contact.
• To get the output voltage, the sliding contact is moved along the resistor and is calculated using
Eqn.

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Ravi Kant, Hema Gurung, eds. Industry 4.0: Concepts, Processes and Systems. CRC Press, 2023.
Types of Potentiometers
• Potentiometers are classified into two types:
• (a) linear potentiometer and (b) rotary potentiometer.

• The linear and rotary potentiometer consist of two fixed terminals, one moving
terminal known as the wiper and a resistive strip known as a track.

[Link]

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Applications of Potentiometer
• Voltage dividers in the electronic circuit.

• Radio and television receivers for tone, volume and linearity control.

• In agricultural machinery, linear potentiometers are used for precise control of steering.

• Rotary position sensors are used within the steering systems of some marine vehicles, including
submarines.

• Ticket barriers which require a ticket to be scanned before opening use rotary potentiometers to
ensure the gate is open for the allocated amount of time.
• These are used on many ticket barriers, including the ones on the London Underground.

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Proximity Sensors
• Proximity sensors can detect the nearby object without any physical
touch and hence don’t cause a scratch or damage to the object.

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INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SENSORS
• Non-contact inductive proximity sensors are designed to detect
metallic objects.
[Link]

• They function based on the electrical principle of inductance, where

a varying current generates an electromotive force (EMF) when a
target object approaches the sensing region.

• The sensor's coil creates an electromagnetic field, and when a

metallic target enters this field, eddy currents are induced around the
object. [Link]

• This interaction increases the load on the sensor, causing a reduction

in the oscillator’s amplitude. As the target moves closer to the
sensor, the oscillator’s amplitude continues to diminish.

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[Link]
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Inductive Proximity Sensors

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Components of inductive proximity sensors
• Coil: Generates the electromagnetic field to detect the target,
supported by a ferrite core that focuses the field on the sensor's front.

• Oscillator: Produces a radio frequency (100 kHz to 1 MHz) to create

the electromagnetic field for sensing.

• Trigger Circuit: Detects changes in oscillation amplitude and sends a

signal to the output.

• Output Circuit: Contains a transistor that switches ON upon receiving

the trigger signal, producing the output.

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[Link]
INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SENSORS
• Inductive sensors detect only metallic objects and cannot sense non-
metallic materials like cardboard or plastic.

• Non-metallic substances do not interfere with detection.

• Dirt and liquids do not affect sensor performance, allowing it to work

well in dirty or wet environments.

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[Link]
INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SENSORS
• Inductive properties differ between metals, affecting sensing distance.

• Ferromagnetic metals offer longer sensing ranges, while non-ferrous metals like
copper or aluminum have shorter ranges.

• Inductive proximity sensors are best suited for short-range detection since
their effect decreases with distance.

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[Link]
Inductive Sensor Applications
• Inductive sensors are widely used across industries for contactless and
reliable detection of metal objects.

• They support manufacturing assembly lines, automotive part

positioning, conveyor monitoring, packaging material detection, and
agricultural equipment automation.

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[Link]
CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SENSOR
• The key difference between inductive and capacitive proximity sensors is that
capacitive sensors generate an electrostatic field rather than an electromagnetic one.

• Capacitive sensors detect both conductive and non-conductive materials, allowing

them to sense metallic and non-metallic objects.

✓ They use a high-frequency oscillating circuit with two metal plates as the sensing surface.

✓ When an object enters the sensing area, it disrupts the electrostatic field, altering the sensor’s
capacitance.

✓ This capacitance change is used to detect objects.

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CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SENSOR

[Link]

• Dielectric plate serves as the insulating medium that allows the sensor to
detect objects without contact.

• It enables the measurement of changes in capacitance, which is the sensor's

core function
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[Link]
Applications of Capacitive Sensor
• These sensors are primarily utilized to detect changes in the position of
conductive targets.

• Nevertheless, they also prove effective in measuring properties such as density,

presence, thickness, and the positioning of non-conductive materials.

• Capacitive sensors are employed to detect or measure variables including

position, proximity, velocity, displacement, fluid levels, and humidity.

• Active sensor touch screens serve as input interfaces for smartphones,

tablets, digital audio players, and various other electronic devices.

• They function as replacements for traditional mechanical buttons.

[Link] 17
 Capacitive Sensor vs Inductive Sensor
Sr. No. Capacitive Sensor Inductive Sensor

An electric field is used by capacitive sensors to detect A magnetic field is used by inductive sensors to detect
1.
objects. objects.

The object does not have to be conductive to be An object has to be conductive to be detected by an
2.
detected by the capacitive sensor. inductive sensor.

These sensors detect both metals and non-conductive

3. This sensor detects metallic objects.
materials.

4. It operates at a lower switching frequency. It operates at a faster switching frequency.

A capacitive sensor has a detection range of 2 to An inductive sensor has a detection range of 0.8 to
5.
50mm. 100mm.

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[Link]
OPTICAL PROXIMITY SENSORS
• Optical proximity sensors are used to detect almost all
objects.

• They are expensive compared to inductive proximity

sensors.
[Link]

• The optical proximity sensors are extensively used in

automated systems.

• These sensors are commonly known as light beam

sensors.

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Optical Proximity Sensors
• The main components of this sensor are emitter, detector and associated
electronics.

✓Emitter (Light Emitting Diode, laser diode) sends a beam of light.

✓The detector (photo diode or phototransistor) detects emitted light.

✓An associated electronics required to amplify the detected signal.

• The emitter transmits a beam of either visible or infrared light to the

detecting receiver.
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[Link]
Sensing Methods or Working Principle

• Through beam method

• Retro-reflective method

• Diffuse or Reflective method

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[Link]
Through beam method

• Relatively complex to install and wire (two piece)

• Advantage: most accurate of the sensing methods with the longest
sensing range (60 m, 0.01 mm)

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[Link]
Retro-reflective method

• One reason for using a retro-reflective sensor over a through-beam

sensor is for the convenience of one wiring location, the opposing
side only requires reflector mounting.

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[Link]
Diffuse or Reflective method

• Common applications: Washroom taps

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[Link]
Applications of Photoelectric Proximity Sensor
• Inspecting items on production lines or conveyor belts
• Counting small objects accurately
• Identifying colors
• Monitoring larger areas for objects using light grids
• Rather than employing multiple sensors, a light grid utilizes parallel light beams to cover
a two-dimensional space.
• Measuring distances precisely
• Managing logistics and material handling
• Operating automatic doors
• And numerous other applications

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[Link]
MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSORS-Reed Type
• Magnetic proximity sensors identify a target by utilizing an
external magnetic field.

• A standard magnetic proximity sensor consists of two

ferromagnetic reeds (or contact blades) enclosed within a glass
tube filled with inert gas.

• The glass enclosure protects the reeds from corrosion.

• When a target, typically a permanent magnet, approaches the

sensor, the contact ends are drawn together, completing the
circuit.

• Consequently, magnetic proximity switches are well-suited for

detecting ferromagnetic objects.

• They are also commonly employed to monitor door openings in

security alarm systems.

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[Link]
MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSORS: Hall Effect Type
• Consider a semiconductor device subjected to a DC voltage vref.
• When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the voltage
direction, a voltage vo is induced in the third orthogonal axis
within the semiconductor.
• This phenomenon is referred to as the Hall effect (1879).
• Since the output voltage vo rises as the magnetic source
approaches the semiconductor, this output signal can serve as an
indicator of proximity.

Schematic representation of a Hall-

effect sensor.
[Link]

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSORS: Hall Effect Type

• A Hall effect sensor is an instrument designed to measure the

strength of a magnetic field.

• The voltage it produces is directly proportional to the intensity of

the magnetic field passing through it.

• It is commonly employed in applications such as proximity

detection, positioning, speed measurement, and current sensing.

• Often, Hall sensors are integrated with threshold detection

circuits, enabling them to function as switches.

[Link]

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[Link] and [Link]
MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSORS: Magneto-resistive Type

• Proximity sensors detect changes using

the magneto-resistive effect.

• Magneto-resistance refers to a material’s

change in electrical resistance when
exposed to an external magnetic field.

[Link]

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[Link]
MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSORS-GMR
• Giant magnetoresistive (GMR) technology is used to detect objects.

• GMR is a quantum mechanical phenomenon observed in thin films

composed of alternating ferromagnetic and non-magnetic layers.

• When exposed to a magnetic field, these films experience a

significant change in electrical resistance—typically a decrease of
10–80%—caused by the alignment of the magnetizations in the
magnetic layers.

• The sensor cell comprises resistors made from multiple ultra-thin

(nanometer-scale) ferromagnetic and non-magnetic layers.

• These GMR resistors are arranged in a standard Wheatstone bridge

circuit that enhances the output voltage signal, which corresponds
to the magnetic field strength detected by the device.

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Ravi Kant, Hema Gurung, eds. Industry 4.0: Concepts, Processes and Systems. CRC Press, 2023. and [Link]
MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSORS-GMR

• Magnetic proximity sensors are more reliable than the simple position
determining mechanical switches because they have no moving parts for wear or
jam.

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MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSORS: Variable Reluctance Type
• Proximity sensors consist of a permanent magnet
and a pickup coil.

• They have a winding around a cylindrical ferrous

pole piece with a magnet behind it, creating a
magnetic field. [Link]

• This field extends from the sensor tip, and when

ferrous material disrupts it, electricity is
produced.

• These passive sensors generate signals without [Link]

needing external power.

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[Link]
MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSORS: Variable Reluctance Type
• A VR sensor detects the position of a
mechanical link in industrial equipment.

• A crankshaft position sensor in a car engine

provides the crankshaft's angular position to [Link]

the engine control unit, which calculates engine

speed.

• A pickup in electric guitars or similar

instruments detects vibrations of metallic
strings. [Link]

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[Link]
Advantages of Magnetic Proximity Sensors
• Contacts are well protected against dust, oxidization and corrosion due to
the hermetic glass bulb and inert gas; contacts are activated by means of a
magnetic field rather than mechanical parts

• Special surface treatment of contacts assures long contact life

• Maintenance free

• Easy operation

• Reduced size

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[Link]
Applications of Magnetic proximity Sensor

• Magnetic sensors are used in many industrial applications for

contactless current sensing, linear and angular position, and rotation
sensing.

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Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors
• Ultrasonic sensors work by sending out a pulse and detecting its
return.

• The distance to an object is calculated using the time between

sending and receiving the pulse.

• Typically, the transmitter and receiver are combined in one unit,

making installation and wiring easier, though they can also be
separate.

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[Link]
Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors

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[Link]
Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors
• Ultrasonic proximity sensors are widely utilized in numerous
manufacturing and automation settings.

• Primarily employed for object detection and distance measurement,

these sensors are frequently applied in food and beverage processing
as well as diverse packaging operations.

• They operate by emitting sound waves at frequencies above the human

audible range (approximately 20 kHz), generally between 25 and 50
kHz.

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[Link]
Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors
• Ultrasonic proximity sensors rely on sound instead of light,
making them effective where photoelectric sensors struggle,
such as detecting clear plastics, reflective surfaces, or liquid
levels.

• They are also resistant to contaminants like dust, moisture,

and ambient light.

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[Link]
Nuclear Sensors
• Alpha, beta, gamma rays, and neutrons are common ionizing
radiations.

• High exposure to these can cause diseases like cancer.

• Nuclear sensors monitor and measure radiation levels.

• Nuclear power plant workers face exposure to various radiations.

• Radiation levels are regularly tracked to stay within safe limits.

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[Link]
Penetrating Power of Different Radiations

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[Link]
Nuclear Sensor Types
• Nuclear sensors are categorized into
• Nuclear particle sensors
• Solid-state sensors

• Solid-state radiation detectors are divided into two types:

• Scintillator based
• Direct absorption-based detector.

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[Link]
Nuclear Particle Sensors
• Nuclear Counter instruments are used to check both the
environment and/or specific items for radioactivity.

• A Geiger counter works by detecting the ionization produced by a

radioactive particle.

• A Geiger counter works by using a Geiger-Müller tube filled with a

low-pressure inert gas, which becomes conductive when struck by [Link]
ionizing radiation.

• Every time a particle of radiation is detected, the counter records

and the total number of particles recorded over a period of time
indicates the amount of radiation present.

• Typically, this is done over one-minute intervals, resulting in

"counts per minute" or CPM.

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[Link]
Nuclear Particle Sensors
• A proportional counter is a measurement device to
count particles of ionizing radiation and measure
their energy.

• It works on the same principle as the Geiger counter

but uses a lower operating voltage.

• Several gas mixtures are used for measurement of

radioactivity and ionisation. [Link]

• For example, carrier gas for proportional counter, P-5 and

P-10 mixtures (5% and 10% methane in argon);
• Carrier gas for Geiger counter, 0.95% iso-butane in helium;
and quench gas, 1.3% n-butane in helium.

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[Link]
Solid-state Radiation Detectors
• Solid-state sensors directly convert
incident radiation into electric current
using various materials such as
germanium, silicon, cadmium zinc
telluride etc. [Link]

• These sensors give high energy

resolutions which makes them popular
for detection of exact amount of
radiation energy.
[Link]

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[Link]
Smart Sensors
• Ordinary sensors have evolved into smart sensors through computing and IoT
integration.

• They can process complex data and are compact and flexible, turning bulky
machines into intelligent devices.

• Equipped with embedded algorithms and digital interfaces, smart sensors

offer self-detection and self-correction.

• In IoT, they convert real-time data into digital information for transmission to
gateways.

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Smart Sensor
A smart sensor is defined as one that is capable of the following (Brignell,
1989; Giachino, 1986):

• Providing a digital output

• Communicating through a bidirectional digital bus

• Being accessed through a specific address

• Executing commands and logical functions

([Link]
Basic Architectural Components of Smart Sensor

(Chaudhari and Dharavath, 2014)

Smart Sensors

• Smart sensors can monitor real-time

situations and quickly take corrective actions
as needed.
(a) Building blocks of smart sensor and (b) features of
smart sensors
• They also handle complex tasks like motion
detection, data collection, analysis, filtering,
and communication.

• A common use of smart sensors is in wireless

sensor networks (WSNs), where multiple
sensors connect to enable communication.
Smart Sensor Temperature and Humidity Display
[Link]

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Self-calibration Capability
• The sensor’s calibration capability is defined as the ability of the sensor to
determine the normal function of the sensor

• For different types of sensors, different calibration techniques are available:

• The calibration of sensors that give electrical output are done using known reference
voltage.

• In the case of load cells that are used for weighing systems, the calibration is done by
adjusting the output to zero under no load condition.

• Some sensors also use look-up tables for the calibration. However, the calibration using
look-up tables requires a huge amount of memory capacity to store the correction points.

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Self-diagnosis of Faults
• Smart sensors are capable of self-diagnosing faults by monitoring internal signals
that indicate potential defects.

• A significant challenge in self-diagnosis is distinguishing between normal

measurement variations and actual sensor faults.

• To address this issue, many smart sensors initially gather numerous measurements
around a set point and calculate the expected minimum and maximum values for
the measured parameter.

• Additionally, mathematical methods are employed to assess the impact of faults on

the data, allowing the sensor to continue operating even after a fault has occurred.

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Ravi Kant, Hema Gurung, eds. Industry 4.0: Concepts, Processes and Systems. CRC Press, 2023.
Automatic calculation of measurement accuracy and
compensation for random errors

• Many smart sensors determine measurement accuracy by averaging

multiple readings and considering all influencing factors.

• This averaging significantly reduces random measurement errors.

([Link]
Adjustment for measurement nonlinearities

• For sensors exhibiting a nonlinear correlation between the measured

variable and their output, digital processing can be employed to
linearize the output.
• This approach requires prior knowledge of the specific nonlinearity, allowing
the corresponding equation to be programmed into the sensor for accurate
conversion.

([Link]
An Example of Smart Sensor

• Integrated multisensor: Developed at the University of California's

Electronics Research Laboratory, this chip includes MOS devices for
signal conditioning and multiple sensors such as gas flow, infrared,
chemical reaction, accelerometer, tactile array, and more. It was
made using standard silicon processing and micromachining
techniques (Giachino, 1986).

([Link]
MEMS Sensors
• MEMSs are tiny devices that combine microelectronic parts like
sensors, actuators, and signal processors on a single chip, using
both electrical and mechanical properties.

• Their size ranges from 0.01 to 1.0 mm, with components as small as
0.001 mm.

• Built using integrated circuit technology, MEMSs can include from

a few to millions of components in one device.

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
Advantages of MEMS
✓Microminiature size and weight
✓Large surface-area-to-volume ratio (when compared in the same
measurement units)
✓Large-scale integration (LSI) of components/circuits
✓High performance
✓High speed (20 ns switching speeds)
✓Low power consumption
✓Easy mass production
✓Low cost (in mass production)

In particular, the microminiature size also means negligible mechanical

loading, fast response, and negligible power consumption (and the related
electrical loading is low).

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
MEMS DEVICE
• A standard MEMS device integrates multiple functions, mainly
• Sensing
• Actuation
• Signal processing
within a unified electromechanical structure.
• There is a variety of MEMS sensor types available.
• These encompass accelerometers (such as piezoelectric and capacitive), flow sensors
(utilizing differential pressure or temperature sensing of a heated element in the flow
medium), gyroscopes (including Coriolis types), humidity sensors (capacitive), light
sensors (semiconductor photodetectors), magnetometers (measuring magnetic fields via
magnetoresistivity), microfluidic sensors (combining multiple sensing modalities like
temperature, pressure, flow, current, alongside microactuation), microphones
(piezoelectric), pressure sensors (piezoresistive diaphragms, piezoelectric), proximity
sensors (capacitive), and temperature sensors (based on Zener breakdown voltage).

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
Energy Conversion Mechanisms in MEMS
• The associated mechanism of energy conversion is a primary
consideration in understanding and modeling the physics of an MEMS
sensor.

• In particular, piezoelectric, electrostatic, and electromagnetic energy

conversions are relevant.

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
Piezoelectric:
• Mechanical strain in a piezoelectric material causes a charge separation across the material
producing a voltage.

• Strain energy produced by the mechanical work that is needed to deform the material is
converted into electrostatic energy.

• This is a passive device.

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
Electrostatic:
✓A voltage causes positive (+) and
negative (−) charges to separate into
the capacitor plates.
✓The attraction force between the plates
is supported by an external
“mechanical” force.
✓When the plates are moved apart,
some mechanical work is done, the
capacitance is reduced, and the voltage
is increased.
✓Hence, mechanical energy is converted
into electrical energy.
✓This is a passive device.
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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
Electromagnetic:
✓As a coil moves in a magnetic field, a current is induced in the coil.
✓In this process, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
✓This is a passive device.

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MEMS Materials
• Just like an IC chip, MEMS device is formed by forming the
required functional structure on a substrate.

• The substrate can be

• Silicon (as for IC chips),
• Polymer (cheaper and easier to fabricate),
• Metal (e.g., gold, nickel, aluminium, copper, chromium, titanium,
tungsten, platinum, silver), or
• Ceramic (e.g., a nitride of silicon, aluminum or titanium, silicon carbide;
they provide desirable material characteristics for sensors, actuators, etc.).

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
MEMS Fabrication Processes
• Deposition (deposition of a film on the substrate; e.g., physical or chemical
deposition)

• Patterning (transfer of the pattern or MEMS structure onto the film; typically,
lithography is used for this purpose)

• Etching (removal of unwanted parts of film or substrate, outside of the MEMS

structure; wet etching where material is dissolved when immersed in a chemical
solution or dry etching where material is sputtered or dissolved using reactive ions
or a vapor phase etchant may be used)

• Die preparation (removal of individual dies that formed MEMS structures on the
wafer), [the process of dividing a silicon wafer into individual, functional components
known as dies (or chips)]

• Dicing (cutting or grinding the wafer to proper shape, say, a thin square).

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
Examples of MEMS Sensors

• MEMS sensors that use piezoelectric, capacitive,

piezoresistive (strain gauge), and electromagnetic
principles are common.

• Following are examples of MEMS sensors in several

application categories to illustrate the range, diversity, and
utility of MEMS sensors

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
MEMS accelerometer:
• MEMS accelerometers operate by translating acceleration into the inertial force
exerted on a proof mass, causing a microminiature cantilever to bend.

• One configuration involves a cantilever beam with a proof mass attached at its free
end.

• When the cantilever bends under the inertial force of the proof mass, the resulting
displacement is detected using capacitive, piezoresistive, or piezoelectric sensing
techniques.

• Another design employing the capacitive method features two interdigitated combs—
one fixed and the other mounted on a cantilever spring with a proof mass at its
opposite end.

• Movement of the comb due to the proof mass’s inertial force causes a change in
capacitance.

• This variation in capacitance is measured to determine the acceleration.

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
MEMS accelerometer:
Simple Accelerometer Model

[Link]
navigation-primer/theory-of-operation/theory-mems

[Link]

Scanning electron micrographs (SEM) of a CMOS MEMS accelerometer. Image used courtesy of K. Zhang
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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
MEMS thermal accelerometer:
• In this sensor, a heated air bubble takes the
place of the proof mass.

• Two thermistors are used for temperature

sensing.

• Its principle is as follows:

• Due to acceleration, the air bubble or thermal plume
moves in that direction between the two thermistor
elements. [Link]
• As a result, the temperature of one thermistor increases
and the other decreases.
• The temperature difference gives the acceleration.

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
MEMS gyroscope:
• A gyroscope is an [Link]

inertial sensor that

measure an object's
angular rate with (a) Single Mass
respect to an inertial
reference frame.

• MEMS gyroscopes
measures the angular
rate by applying the
theory of the Coriolis
effect, which refers to [Link]
[Link]

the force of inertia that (b) Tuning Fork Configuration

acts on objects in
motion in relation to a
rotating frame.
Suggested Video:
[Link]
JmU
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[Link]
• This mass has a driving force on the x-axis causing it to oscillate rapidly in the
x-axis. While in motion an angular velocity, ω, is applied about the z-axis.
• This results in the mass experiencing a force in the y-axis because of the Coriolis force,
and the resultant displacement is measured by a capacitive-sensing structure.

• Typically, MEMS gyroscopes use a tuning fork configuration in which two

masses are connected by a spring
• When an angular rate is applied, the Coriolis force on each mass acts in the opposite
direction and the resulting change in capacitance is directly proportional to the angular
velocity.
• However, when a linear acceleration is applied, the two masses moves in the same
direction, resulting in no change in capacitance and a measured angular rate of zero.
• This configuration minimizes a gyroscope's sensitivity to linear acceleration from
instances of shock, vibration, and tilt.

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[Link]
MEMS blood cell counter:
• The device has two electrodes by which current pulses
can be applied to the path between the electrodes.

• A blood sample is injected across the electrode path.

• The resulting change in electrical resistance (or

resistance pulses) is measured, which is an indicator of
the quantity of blood cells. (Coulter principle)

• Both pulse count and pulse height are sensed.

• Pulse count gives the number of blood cells; pulse

height can be used to differentiate between red and [Link]

white blood cells.

Coulter principle — the transient current drop is proportional to

the particle volume
70
Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016 [Link]
MEMS pressure sensor:
• This sensor uses a suspended membrane (Si substrate)
between two electrodes to measure pressure.
• The capacitance between the electrodes changes as the
membrane (with capacitor plate attached) moves due to
the pressure.
[Link]

• The measurement of capacitance gives the pressure

reading.
• Another type of MEMS pressure sensor uses a
piezoresistive (strain gauge) cantilever.
• As it deforms due to the pressure difference on the two
sides, the resulting change in resistance is measured
using a bridge circuit, which gives the differential
pressure.
• The rating parameters include measurement range of 260–1260
mbar, supply voltage of 1.7–3.6 V, and sensor weight of 10 mg.
• This sensor is used in biomedical applications such as diagnosis
and treatment of neuromuscular diseases.

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
MEMS humidity sensor:
• It uses the principle of capacitance
change in a polymer dielectric
planar capacitor due to humidity.

• When the dielectric absorbs water

vapor, its dielectric constant
increases, thus increasing the
capacitance.

• Typically, MEMS sensors are

available, which measure both
humidity and temperature using
the same device.
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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
MEMS magnetometer:
• This sensor uses the magneto-
resistive property of an MEMS
element to measure magnetic
field.

• It is used in applications of Tri-axis Electronic Magnetometer by AKM Semiconductor, inside Motorola Xoom

electronic compass, GPS

[Link]

navigation, and detection of

magnetic field.

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
MEMS temperature sensor:
• This sensor uses a Zener diode whose
breakdown voltage is proportional to the
absolute temperature.

• The breakdown voltage is the voltage at

which the diode conducts current in reverse
when the cathode reaches its threshold
voltage. [Link]

• The rating parameters include sensitivity of

10 mV/K and current range of 450 μA to 5
mA.

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
Applications of MEMS
The market of MEMS devices and technologies is reaching US $25 billion and is growing at the
rate close to 10% per year.

• Automotive (e.g., accelerometers and gyroscopes or Inertial measurement Units (IMUs) for
airbag deployment, handling control, safety and collision avoidance, ride quality, and
dynamic stability, brakes, car tire pressure sensors)

• Heavy machinery, transportation, and civil engineering structures (vehicles, airplanes

[wing surface sensing and control], etc.; construction machinery, aerospace industry, sports,
and recreation machinery; sensors for stress and strain in buildings, bridges, guideways, etc.;
wireless transmission and control)

• Optical MEMS (micromirrors, scanners, pico-projectors, fog-free lenses, light sensors for IR
imaging, high-speed optical switching devices—20 ns)

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
Applications of MEMS
• Biomedical applications (BioMEMS and microfluidics including lab-on-chip that uses
bodily fluids for diagnosis, HIV/AIDS testing, and pregnancy testing; micro total analysis
[biosensor and chemosensor]; implants including stents; microsurgical tools including
microrobots for angioplasty, catheterization, endoscopy, laparoscopy, and neurosurgery;
tissue engineering including applications of cell biology, proteomics, and genomics;
disposable blood pressure sensors, sensors for intraocular pressure in eyes, intracranial
pressure inside skull, and intrauterine pressure; IMUs in defibrillators and pacemakers;
microphone and hearing aids; microneedles, patches, etc., for controlled drug
delivery/release, biosignal recording electrodes, bodily fluid extraction and sampling,
cancer therapy, and microdialysis; and prosthetics, orthotics, wheelchairs, etc.)

• Energy sector (sensor-driven heating and cooling of buildings, oil and gas exploration,
energy harvesting, microcooling)

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
Applications of MEMS

• Global positioning system (GPS) sensors (for vehicles, smartphones, and

courier package tracking and handling).

• Computers, consumer electronics, and home appliances (touch screen

controllers; inkjet printer nozzles and cartridges; IMUs and microphones for
cell phones, laptops, tablets, game controllers, personal media players,
digital cameras, and headsets; hard disk drives, computer peripherals,
wireless devices, etc., in computers; and interferometric modulator display
applications such as flat-panel displays)

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Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
Nano-sensors (NEMS)
• The most recent development in sensing technology are Nano- sensors.
These sensors are based on nanotechnology and the size varies from 1 to
1,000 um.

• These sensors are a part of the Nano- electromechanical system (NEMS)

and are used as accelerometers, biological sensors, Nano- actuators, etc.

• The sensor has a lower production cost, smaller size, and reduced power
consumption

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Common Measuring Devices Used in Automation (1 of 5)

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Common Measuring Devices Used in Automation (2 of 5)

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Common Measuring Devices Used in Automation (3 of 5)

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Common Measuring Devices Used in Automation (4 of 5)

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Common Measuring Devices Used in Automation (5 of 5)

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Important Notes
• Operators must calibrate measuring devices to convert output into the measured
value.

• Ease of calibration is an important factor in evaluating devices.

• Table_NEXT lists desirable sensor features for process control.

• Engineers prioritize key features when choosing sensors for specific applications, as
few meet all criteria perfectly.

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Desirable Features for Selecting Sensors Used in Automated Systems

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Actuator
• An actuator is a part of a mechanical device or machine that converts the supplied
energy into physical movements.

• Basically, an actuator needs an energy source for its operation.

• The source of energy can be electric current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic
pressure.

• The most commonly used actuators are (a) hydraulic actuators, (b) pneumatic
actuators, (c) electric actuators, and (d)piezoelectric actuators.

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Ravi Kant, Hema Gurung, eds. Industry 4.0: Concepts, Processes and Systems. CRC Press, 2023.
Actuators

• An actuator is a transducer because it changes one type of physical

quantity into some alternative form

• An actuator is usually activated by a low-level command signal, so an

amplifier may be required to provide sufficient power to drive the
actuator

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Types of Actuators

1. Electric
– Electric motors
– Solenoids
– Electromechanical relays
2. Hydraulic
– Use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller command signal

3. Pneumatic

– Use compressed air as the driving force

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Electric Actuators
• An electric actuator is a device that converts electrical energy into linear or rotary
motion.

• It uses an electric motor to generate the force that is necessary to create the required
action or movement.

• The linear actuators vary the power in a straight-line fashion and are normally used for
two tasks, namely push and pull.

• Similarly, the rotary actuators are used to provide the rotary motion and are commonly
used to control the valves like balls, butterflies, etc.

• Depending on the applications, actuators are available in various shapes and sizes.

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Ravi Kant, Hema Gurung, eds. Industry 4.0: Concepts, Processes and Systems. CRC Press, 2023.
Electric Motors

• DC motors
– Common type: DC servomotor
• AC motors
– Synchronous motors
– Induction motors
• Stepper motors
• Linear motors

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
An Electric Motor

(a) Typical configuration and (b) diagram showing its operation.

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
 92

Difference Between AC and DC Motors

[Link]
DC Motors
• DC motors are powered by a constant current and voltage.

• The continuously switching magnetic field is achieved by means of a rotary switching

device, called a commutator, which rotates with the rotor and picks up current from a
set of carbon brushes that are components of the stator assembly.

• Its function is to continually change the relative polarity between the rotor and the
stator, so that the magnetic field produces a torque to continuously turn the rotor.

• Use of a commutator is the traditional construction of a DC motor.

• This is a disadvantage because it results in arcing, worn brushes, and maintenance

problems.

Suggested Video:
[Link]
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Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
DC Motors
• A special type of DC motor avoids the use of the commutator and
brushes.

• Called a brushless DC motor, it uses solid-state circuitry to replace the

brushes and commutator components.

• Elimination of these parts has the added benefit of reducing the inertia of
the rotor assembly, allowing higher speed operation.

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Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Torque-Speed Curve of a DC Servomotor and Load Torque Plot

The torque developed

by the motor and the
torque required by the
load must be
balanced.

That is, T = T in L

steady-state operation
and this torque is
called the operating
point.

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
DC Motors
• A significant advantages of a DC servomotor is its ability to deliver a
very high torque at a starting velocity of zero.

• In addition, it is a variable-speed motor, and its direction of rotation can

be readily reversed.

• These are important considerations in many automation applications where the

motor is called upon to frequently start and stop its rotation or to reverse direction.

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DC Motors: Two Important Disadvantages
• The commutator and brushes result in maintenance problems
with these motors

• The most common electrical power source in industry is

alternating current, not direct current

• Therefore, in order to use AC power to drive a DC motor, a rectifier

must be added to convert the alternating current to direct current

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Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
AC Motors

• Synchronous motors

• Induction motors

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AC Motors: Induction Motors
• Probably the most widely used motors in the world, due to their relatively simple construction and low
manufacturing cost.

• In the operation of this motor type, a magnetic field is induced (hence the term induction) in the
rotor from the stator.

• Unlike synchronous motors, induction motors operate at speeds that are slower than the synchronous
speed.

• The steady-state rotational speed depends on the load that the motor is driving.

• When AC power is first applied to an induction motor, the induced magnetic field and torque are
maximum, so no exciter is needed to start the motor turning.

Suggested Video:
[Link]
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Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
AC Motors: Synchronous Motors
• Operate by energizing the rotor, which generates a magnetic field in the gap separating the rotor and the
stator.

• This magnetic field creates a torque that turns the rotor at the same rotational speed as the magnetic
forces in the stator.

• The term synchronous derives from the fact that the rotor rotation is synchronized with the AC
frequency in steady-state operation.

• Synchronous motors cannot start by themselves from zero speed; they require a device, sometimes
called an exciter, to initiate rotation of the rotor when power is first supplied to the motor.

• The exciter, which may be an electric motor itself, accelerates the rotational speed of the rotor so that it
can be synchronized with that of the stator’s rotating magnetic field.

Suggested Video:
[Link]
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Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
AC Motors
• Both synchronous motors and induction motors operate at constant speeds.

• Most of their applications are those in which running at a fixed speed is required.

• This is a disadvantage in many automation applications because frequent speed changes are often
necessary with much starting and stopping.

• The speed issue is sometimes addressed by using adjustable-frequency drives (called

inverters) that control the cycle rate of the AC power to the motor.

• Motor speed is proportional to frequency, so changing the frequency changes the motor
speed.

• Advances in solid-state electronics have also improved speed control for AC motors, and
they are now competitive in some applications traditionally reserved for DC motors.

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Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
 Key Differences Between AC and DC Motor

AC Motor DC Motor
An electrical machine that converts AC electrical energy into An electrical machine that converts DC electrical energy into
mechanical energy. Mechanical energy.
It is powered by alternating current (AC). It is powered by a unidirectional direct current (DC).
There are two main types of AC motors; Asynchronous There are two main types of DC motor; Brushed DC motor &
(Induction) motor & Synchronous motor. Brushless DC (BLDC) motor.
AC motors can be single phase (phase and neutral as input) or DC Motors are single phase having two lines as input (positive
three phase (3 lines of live wires as input). and negative).
The input supply to the armature is AC, so it does not need The input supply is DC, so it needs Commutation the DC input
commutation. into AC.

The input is supplied to stator thus no need for carbon The input is supplied to the rotor thus it needs Carbon
brushes. brushes & commutator.
It does not generate much noise & operates smoothly. The brushes slide along armature generates noise & sparks.
It offers increased output power. It offers a wide range of speed control.

[Link] 102
 Key Differences Between AC and DC Motor

AC Motor DC Motor

The input supplies can be Single-phase or three- The input supply is a DC source such as batteries,
phase. cell & solar panel, etc.
It uses the AC mains as its input supply. It uses stored backup power from batteries.
Its direction can be reversed by changing the polarity
Its direction can be easily reversed by changing the
of starter winding in a single phase & swapping any
polarity of input DC supply.
two terminals in a 3-phase motor.
Its speed is controlled by varying armature current.
Its speed is controlled by varying the input frequency.
It is easier to control externally through PWM (pulse
It uses VFD for controlling their speed.
width modulation)
It requires frequent & costly maintenance; thus
It requires less maintenance & is cost-effective.
they are costlier than AC.

The magnetic field rotates in the rotor. The magnetic field is stationary in the rotor.

[Link] 103
 Key Differences Between AC and DC Motor

AC Motor DC Motor
It provides a constant torque over a wide range of
The torque decreases with an increase in speed.
speed.
AC motor has relatively low efficiency due to the DC Motor has high efficiency because the magnetic
induction current losses. field is generated by a permanent magnet.
Not all AC motors are self-starting and equipment to
All dc motors are self-starting motors.
start.
The AC induction motor is the most used electrical Used in application requiring precise position
motor in the domestic and industrial sectors such as control and high torque such as lifts, cranes,
in drill machines, water pumps, fans, washing conveyor belts, etc. also small motors in embedded
machines, blowers, etc. electronics, small toys.

[Link] 104
Stepper Motors
• Also called step motors and stepping motors,
this motor type provides rotation in the form of
discrete angular displacements, called step
angles.

• Each angular step is actuated by a discrete

electrical pulse.

• The total angular rotation is controlled by the

number of pulses received by the motor, and
rotational speed is controlled by the frequency
of the pulses.

Suggested Video
[Link]
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Typical Torque-Speed Curve of a Stepper Motor

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Stepper Motors

• Stepper motors are used in open-loop control systems for applications

in which torque and power requirements are low to modest.

• They are widely used in machine tools and other production machines,
industrial robots, x–y plotters, medical and scientific instruments, and
computer peripherals.

• Probably the most common application is to drive the hands of analog

quartz watches.

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Rotary-to-Linear Conversion
(a) Leadscrew or ball screw and nut

(b) Pulley system

(c) Rack and pinion

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Linear Motors
A linear electric motor provides a linear motion directly, without requiring rotary-to-
linear conversion

[Link]

(a) Flat, (b) U-channel, and (c) cylindrical.

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Linear Motors

• Applications of linear motors include mechanical and electronic assembly,

metrology, and laser positioning.

• They are sometimes used as alternatives to rotary motors with linear

motion converters, where they often compare favorably in terms of
accuracy, repeatability, acceleration, speed, and ease of installation.

• One limitation is that they should not be used where vertical lifting is
required, because if power to the motor is lost, gravity would cause any
load that had been lifted to fall.

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Solenoid

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Electromechanical Relay
• An on–off electrical switch consisting of two main components, a
stationary coil and a movable arm that can be made to open or
close an electrical contact by means of a magnetic field that is
generated when current is passed through the coil.
[Link]

• The reason for using a relay is that it can be operated with

relatively low current levels, but it opens and closes circuits that
carry high currents and/or voltages.

• Thus, relays are a safe way to remotely switch on and off

equipment that requires high electrical power.

[Link]

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators

• Hydraulic
– Use oil
▪ Incompressible, high forces, low speed operation
• Pneumatic
– Use compressed air
▪ Compressible, low forces, high speed operation

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Cylinder and Piston: (a) Single-Acting and (b) Double-Acting

Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Hydraulic Actuators
• A hydraulic actuator includes a hollow cylinder and a sliding piston.
• It operates using hydraulic power.
• An electric motor powers a pump that moves fluid through valves to either
side of the cylinder.
• Single acting actuators apply fluid pressure to one side, moving the piston in
one direction, with a spring returning it.
• Double acting actuators apply pressure to both sides, moving the piston in
both directions.

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Pneumatic Actuators
• A pneumatic actuator converts energy from high pressure compressed air or vacuum to
rotary or linear motion.

• A pneumatic system or circuit works from the stored air pressure. It is generally available in
two forms:
• Diaphragm and
• Piston operated

• The air pressure built from the compressor is applied against the diaphragm or piston. This
causes the movement of the valve actuator in the system and hence, results in mechanical
motion.

• Pneumatic actuators are very reliable and require much less maintenance and therefore
are commonly used on production lines.

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Comparison of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems

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Fluid-powered Rotary Motors
• Available to provide a continuous rotational motion.

• Hydraulic motors are noted for developing high torques, and pneumatic [Link] /
motors can be used for high-speed applications.

• There are several different mechanisms by which these motors operate,

including the use of vanes, and turbine blades.

• Hydraulic motors have well-behaved characteristics.

• In general, the rotation speed of a hydraulic motor is directly proportional

to the fluid flow rate

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Piezoelectric Actuators
• Piezoelectric actuators are transducers that are
based on the piezoelectric effect which converts
electrical energy into mechanical displacement or
stress.

• The piezoelectric actuators are used as high-

precision positioning mechanisms; hence, they can
control small mechanical displacement at high [Link]
speeds.

• Piezoelectric actuators are commonly made using

quartz, ceramics and lead zirconate titanate (PZT).

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Smart Actuators
• Smart actuators are characterized by the integration of a motor, controller,
sensors, and communication components within a single unit.

• In contrast to traditional actuators, smart actuators contribute to a more compact

and cost-effective system design.

• This advantage arises from the elimination of separate sensors, which reduces both
expenses and spatial requirements.

• Actuators utilizing smart materials such as shape memory alloys (SMA) and
piezoelectric elements are widely employed in robotics and medical fields.

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Smart Actuators

• It is built with advanced hardware to handle demanding tasks

and offers plug-and-play control for industrial use.

• Unlike standard actuators, smart actuators provide fault

reporting and performance feedback to help identify issues like
power loss or motor overheating.

121
[Link]
MEMS Actuation Techniques

[Link] 122
Electrostatic Actuation: Parallel

Parallel plate capacitor for the electrostatic actuation

• Electrostatic actuation is considered one of the most popular mechanisms for actuating MEMS
devices.
• They have a simple design, fast response time, ease of fabrication and low power consumption.

[Link] 123
Electrostatic Actuation: Electrostatic comb-drive
configurations

[Link] 124
Applications
• Biosensor application [BioMEMS sensor]
• Humidity Sensors [Microcantilever-based MEMS sensors]
• Nano positioner [MEMS nanopositioning system]
• Switch applications [Bistable MEMS switch]
• Navigation (automobile GPS) [MEMS gyroscope]
• Mass-Sensitive Gas Sensors [CMOS-MEMS resonator]

125
Electrothermal Actuation
The electrical resistance of the
'hot’ arm is higher than the
'cold’ arm, so when electric
current passes through the
actuator, the 'hot’ arm is
heated to a higher
temperature.

The 'hot’ arm expansion causes

the tip of the device to rotate
about a flexure element.

Schematic of the electrothermal actuation a U-Beam Actuator (hot/cold arm), b bimorph actuator (Bi-material
actuator), c and d buckling actuators [V-Beam Actuator (Chevron actuators) and shuttle beams)

Applications: Diabetes screening [MEMS-based acetone vapour sensor], Humidity sensing purpose [CMOS-MEMS
device]
[Link] 126
Electromagnetic Actuation

Schematic of the electromagnetic actuation using Lorentz forces a in-plane actuator, b and c out-of-plane actuator

Applications: Optical switches and micro scanners [MEMS actuator]

[Link] 127
Piezoelectric Actuation

Schematic of the piezoelectric actuator

Applications: A bio-or chemical event detection [Mass-sensor based micro-cantilevers]

[Link] 128
ROLE OF SMART SENSORS AND ACTUATORS

• One of the main elements of Industry 4.0 is IoT, which mainly includes sensors and
actuators.

• The sensors and actuators are used in industry for controlling and monitoring the
different process variables.

• In Industry 4.0 smart sensors and actuators are the first level of the automation
process. At this level, first sensors and actuators receive raw data from the
manufacturing process and start controlling the process by monitoring the data.

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