EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

Chapter 2: TRANSFORMERS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The transformer is basically a static device in which two or more stationary electric circuits
are coupled magnetically, the windings being linked by a common time-varying magnetic flux. Its
analysis involves many of the principles essential to the study of rotating electrical machinery. It
does not convert energy from one form to another. Its operation just involves the interchange of
electrical energy between two or more electric systems. It is still an extremely important component
in many energy-conversion systems.

The transformer performs many useful functions in several fields of electrical engineering. In
the widespread AC power systems the transformer provides the much-needed capability to change
the voltage and current levels rather easily. Differing requirements of generation, transmission, and
utilization of electric power dictate different optimum values for the voltage and current
combinations. The transformer is utilized in stepping up the generator voltage to an appropriate
transmission voltage for power transfer, and in stepping down the transmission voltage at various
levels for proper distribution and power utilization. In communication systems ranging in frequency
from audio to radio levels, the transformer performs such functions as input transformer, inter-stage
transformer, output transformer, impedance matching device for improved power transfer,
insulation device between electric circuits, and isolation device for blocking the dc signal while
maintaining the ac continuity between circuits.

The ratings of transformers cover a very wide range. Whereas transformers applied for
electronic circuits and systems usually have ratings of 300 volt-amperes or less, power-system
transformers that transmit and distribute electric power have volt-ampere ratings in the kVA and
MVA range.

Transformers are used in circuits of various voltage levels, from microvolts in electronic
circuits to very high voltage levels of hundreds of kV as in power system operation. Transformer
applications are seen throughout the frequency spectrum utilized in electrical circuits, from near dc
to several hundreds of megahertz, with both continuous sinusoidal and pulse waveforms.

For transformer action to occur all that one needs is two coils so positioned that some of the
flux produced by a current in one coil links with some of the turns of the other. However,
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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

transformers used in power system networks are usually much more elaborately constructed in order
to minimize energy loss, to produce a large flux in the ferromagnetic core by a current in any one
coil, and to ensure that as much flux as possible links as many turns of the other coils on the core as
possible. Thus, transformers come in various sizes, from very small ones weighing only a few
ounces to very large ones weighing hundreds of tonnes.

Transformers may be classified by their frequency range: power transformers, which usually
operate at a fixed frequency; audio and ultrahigh frequency transformers; wide-band and narrow-
band frequency transformers; and pulse transformers. Transformers employed in supplying power to
electronic systems are generally known as "power transformers". In power system applications,
however, the term power transformers denotes those that are used to transmit power in ratings
larger than those associated with distribution transformers, usually more than 500 kVA at the
voltage levels of 67 kV and above.

Conventional transformers have two windings, but others known as auto-transformers have
only one winding. Still others called multi-winding transformers have more than two windings.
Transformers used in polyphase circuits are known as polyphase transformers. In the most popular
three-phase system, the common connections are the wye ("star" or Y) and the delta ("mesh" or ∆)
connections.

A two-winding transformer essentially consists of two windings inter-linked by a common

magnetic field. The winding that is excited or energized by connecting it to an input source is
usually referred to as the primary winding; the other, to which the electrical load is connected and
from which the output energy is taken, is known as the secondary winding. Depending on the
voltage level at which the winding is operated, the windings are classified as HV (high-voltage) or
LV (low-voltage) windings. The terminology of step-up or step-down transformer is also used if the
main purpose of the transformer is to raise or lower the voltage level. In a step-up transformer, the
primary winding is a low-voltage winding and the secondary winding is a high-voltage winding.
The opposite is true for a step-down transformer.

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

2.2 CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF TRANSFORMERS

An elementary model of a transformer is shown in Figure 2.1. Although it is a convenient
model for analyzing and illustrating the principles involved, practically, it would be a very
unacceptable design mainly because of the large leakage flux. In order to minimize the leakage flux
and improve the magnetic coupling between the two windings, a variety of cores and winding
configurations have been adopted. Basically these can be classified as the core type and the shell
type. These are depicted in Figure 2.2

Φ Mutual flux Core

Leakage Leakage flux
flux
+ +
Primary
winding
Load
Secondary
winding

- -

Figure 2.1 Elementary model of a transformer

In order to confine most of the flux to a definite path linking the windings, the core is usually made
of some ferromagnetic material. For reducing the losses caused by eddy currents, the core is
normally comprised of a stack of thin laminations. Sometimes instead of separate sheets of
laminations, a single long and thin strip of grain-oriented steel is wound over a former to form the
core. This results in a lower core loss and also in a lower magnetizing current. Grain-oriented steel
is also used for the cores of large transformers in the form of stacked flat strips so that as much as
possible of the flux path coincides with the direction of rolling.

Silicon-steel laminations 0.35 mm thick is generally used for transformers that operate at
frequencies below a few hundred hertz. Desirable properties of the silicon steel are its low cost, low
core loss, and high permeability at flux-density levels of 1 to 1.7 tesla. While power transformer
cores are generally constructed from soft magnetic materials in the form of punched laminations or
wound tapes of appropriate thickness (depending upon the operating frequency), cores of high
frequency electronics transformers are often constructed of soft ferrites. Some communication
transformer cores are also made of compressed powdered ferromagnetic alloys.

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

High
Low
Voltage
Voltage
Laminated Core
built using CRGO
steel
(Cold Rolled Grain
Figure 2.2.a Core type transformer Oriented steel)

High
Voltage High
Voltage
Low
Voltage

Figure 2.2.b Shell type transformer

In order to reduce the leakage, the windings are subdivided into sections placed as closely
together as possible. In the core-type construction, each winding consists of two sections one
section placed on each of the two legs of the core, and the primary and secondary windings are
arranged to be concentric coils. In the shell-type construction, the windings usually consist of a
number of thin coils assembled in a stack, with primary and secondary coils interleaved.

The characteristic features of the core-type transformer are a long mean length of the magnetic
circuit and a short mean length of the windings, while those of the shell-type are a short mean length
of the magnetic circuit and a long mean length of the windings. Thus, for a given output and
performance, the core type will have a smaller area of core and a larger number of turns than the
corresponding shell-type. Except for certain extreme ratings, the choice between core and shell-type
constructions is largely a matter of manufacturing facilities and of individual preference. Generally,
the steel-to-copper weight ratio is greater in the shell type transformer.

The constructional details of transformers vary greatly, depending upon the specific applications,
the winding voltage and current ratings, and the operating frequencies. Whereas many transformers
used for electronic circuits and systems are quite simple in their construction, transformers used in
electric power systems are usually much more complicated. The main constructional elements of a
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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

power-system transformer include:

- Cores comprising limbs, yokes, and clamping devices;
- Primary, secondary, and sometimes also tertiary phase windings, coil formers, spacers, and
conductor insulation;
- Inter-winding and winding/earth insulation and bracing;
- Tanks, coolers, dryers, conservators, and other auxiliaries; and
- Terminals and bushings, connections, and tapping switches.

In order to avoid overheating and consequent breakdown of insulation, the heat produced in a
transformer must be removed. Some transformers are air-cooled; the heat is removed by radiation
and convection either immediately from the core and coil surfaces or from the surrounding
protective enclosure. The so-called dry transformers have simple natural air cooling or sometimes
sealed into cabinets filled with nitrogen. The great majority of industrial power-system transformers
are immersed in oil for cooling, insulation, and mechanical protection. The oil removes the heat by
convection and conveys it to the walls of the tank (and the radiators), from where it is transferred to
the atmosphere. Conservator tanks may be required to take up the cycle expansion and contraction
of the transformer oil without allowing it to come in contact with the ambient air, from which it may
absorb moisture. In very large power system transformers, radiators and forced oil circulation in the
tank as well as forced air-cooling are employed. Recent studies have shown that it is technically
feasible to build large power transformers with sheet-wound coils that are insulated by compressed
gas (such as sulfur hexafluoride, SF6) and cooled by forced circulation of a liquid.

The windings for transformers applied for electronic systems are usually made of "magnet
wire" designated to decrease conductor cross section and by a letter indicating insulation class-A, B,
C, F, and H corresponding to safe operating temperatures of 105o C to 180o C. The windings of
power system transformers, however, generally are conductors with heavier insulation and are
assembled with much greater mechanical support. Often, the windings are preformed and the
transformer core is built around them by stacking the laminations.

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

2.3 TRANSFORMER THEORY

2.3.1 The Ideal Transformer

The most important aspects of transformer action can be illustrated by idealizing the transformer.
Figure 2.3 shows schematically a transformer having two windings with N1 and N2 turns,
respectively, on a common magnetic circuit. The ideal transformer is one that has no losses
(associated with iron or copper) and no leakage fluxes; it has a core of infinite magnetic
permeability and zero iron losses. All the flux is confined to the core linking both the windings and
the winding resistances are negligible. No MMF is required to establish the flux; and the electric
fields produced by the windings are negligible. Although these properties are never actually
achieved in a practical transformer, steps are taken in design and construction to approach the ideal
condition.

When a time-varying voltage v1 is applied to the primary winding (assumed to have zero
resistance), a core flux Φ is established and a counter emf e1 is developed such that
dΦ dλ1
v1 = e1 = N 1 = (2.1)
dt dt
where λ1 = N1Φ is the flux linkage associated with the primary winding of N1 turns. The polarity of
the primary induced voltage e1 with respect to that of the applied voltage v1 is as shown in Figure
2.3, satisfying Lenz's law, which states that an induced electric current produces flux in a direction
that opposes the change of flux linkage that induced it.

Since there is no leakage flux in an ideal transformer, the core flux Φ also links all the N2

Φ Mutual flux Ferrite Core

i1 i2
+ +
Primary
winding
v1 e1 N1 turns
e2 v2 Load
Secondary ZL
winding
N2 turns
- -

Figure 2.3 Ideal transformer

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

turns of the secondary winding and produces an induced emf e2.

dΦ dλ 2
e2 = N 2 = (2.2)
dt dt
When the flux is increasing, the secondary induced voltage e2 has the polarity shown in Figure 2.3.
If a passive external load circuit is connected to the secondary winding terminals, then the terminal
voltage v2 will cause a current i2 to flow as shown in the figure 2.3. Since the resistance of the
secondary winding is assumed to be zero, the secondary terminal voltage will be equal to the
secondary induced voltage e2.
dΦ dλ 2
v 2 = e2 = N 2 = (2.3)
dt dt
From Equations 2.1 and 2.3 it follows that
v1 e1 N 1
= = = a (2.4)
v 2 e2 N 2
where a is the turns ratio. Thus, in an ideal transformer, voltages are transformed in the direct ratio
of the turns. Application of Ampere's law around the closed contour of the mean path of magnetic
flux (shown in Figure 2.3) yields
N1. i1 - N2 . i2 = 0, (2.5)
since the core is assumed to have infinite magnetic permeability. Consequently the magnetic field
intensity is zero everywhere in the core, even though the magnetic flux and the magnetic flux
density are finite; that is, the net MMF acting on the core of an ideal transformer at any instant is
zero. Equation 2.5 implies that
i1 N 1
= 2 = (2.6)
i2 N1 a
Thus, for an ideal transformer, currents are transformed in the inverse ratio of the turns. The
instantaneous power input equals the instantaneous power output in an ideal transformer:
v 1 . i 1 = v 2 . i2 (2.7)

2.3.2 EMF Equation

Let us next consider the case in which the waveforms of the applied voltage and flux are
sinusoidal. If the flux as a function of time is given by
Φ = Φ MAX sin ωt (2.8)
where Φ MAX is the maximum value of the flux, and ω = 2 πf, f being the frequency, then the induced
voltage e1 in the primary winding is given by
dΦ
e1 = N1 = ωN1Φ MAX cos ωt (2.9)
dt
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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

The induced emf leads the flux by 90o for the reference directions shown in Figure 2.3. The
rms value of the induced emf is given by
2π
E1 = f N 1Φ MAX = 4.44 f N 1Φ MAX (2.10 a)
2
and
E2 = 4.44 f N2Φ MAX (2.10 b)

If the resistance drop in the winding is neglected, the counter emf equals the applied voltage. Thus
in an ideal transformer,
V1 = E1 = 4.44 f N1 Φ MAX (2.11)
In a practical transformer, V1 ≈ E1.

V1
∴ Φ MAX = (2.12)
4.44 f N 1

where V1 is the rms value of the applied voltage. The core-flux is thus determined solely by the
applied voltage, the frequency of the applied voltage, and the number of turns in the winding.

For the case of a sinusoidal voltage applied to the primary winding and load impedance connected
to the secondary winding, phasor notation can be conveniently used. Equivalent circuits viewed
from the source terminals, when the transformer is ideal, are shown in Figure 2.4, in which the rms
or effective values of the variables are used. The ends of the two windings at which the dots are
placed become positive in potential simultaneously with respect to the other ends of the windings.
The voltages V1 and V2 are in phase, and so also the currents i1 and i2. The directions of the currents
are such that their net MMF is zero. In phasor form, the voltage and current relations are given by
N1
V1 = V2 = a V2 (2.13)
N2

N2 1
I1 = I2 = I2 (2.14)
N1 a

Since V2 = ZL I2 (2.15)
it follows that
2 2
V1  N 1  V2  N 1 
=  =  ZL = a2 ZL (2.16)
I 1  N 2  I 2  N 2 

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

where ZL is the complex impedance of the load, as shown in Figure 2.4. The consequence of
equation (2.16) is that an impedance ZL in the secondary circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
impedance in the primary circuit in so far as the effect at the source terminals is concerned.
2
N 
Z =  1
'
L
 Z L = a 2 Z L (2.17)
 N2 
Thus the circuits in Figure 2.4a and 2.4b are indistinguishable from one another when viewed from
the source terminals. Z L' is the load impedance referred to the primary side. Transferring an
impedance from one side of the transformer to the other in this manner is called referring the
impedance. With the use of Equations 2.13 and 2.14, voltages and currents also may be referred to
1
one side or the other. For example, I2 would be called secondary current referred to primary and
a
would be denoted by I 2' . In an ideal transformer I1 = I 2' .

+ I1 + I2
+ I1

V1 V2 ZL 2
V1 N 
Z =  1
'
L
 Z L = a 2 Z L
 N2 

- -
(a) -
(b)
Figure 2.4 Equivalent circuit viewed from source terminals when the transformer is ideal

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

Ideal E1
IO transformer

V1 IO
E1 E2
IW

Iµ Φ
Figure 2.5b Phasor diagram at no-load
Figure 2.5a Single phase
transformer with no-load current
Ideal
IO transformer

IO

V1 RO XO
E1 E2

IW Iµ

Figure 2.5c Equivalent circuit of a single phase transformer taking exciting current into account

2.3.3 TRANSFORMER ON NO-LOAD

The transformer is said to be on no-load when there is no current in the secondary as shown in
figure 2.5. In this case, only a current called exciting current or no load current flows in the primary
circuit because of the core losses and finite permeability of the core material. This no load current is
composed of two components, the core loss current and the magnetizing current. The core loss
PC
current is given by I W = where PC is the core loss composed of hysteresis and eddy current
E1

losses. The core loss is manifested as heat generated in the core. It is important to note that IW is in
phase with the primary induced voltage E1. The no-load current is depicted in figure 2.5b and is
given by I0 = IW + Iµ. Let the magnitudes of the current phasors IW and Iµbe represented IW and Iµ
respectively then the magnitude of the phasor I0 is given by

I 0 = I W2 + I µ2 (2.18)

And the no-load power factor is given by:

IW
cos θ 0 = (2.19)
I0

If the transformer is ideal, IW, Iµ, I0 and Pc will be zero.

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

2.3.4 BEHAVIOUR OF A TRANSFORMER ON LOAD

Consider that a load is connected on the secondary side of a transformer. The secondary
induced EMF E2 sends a current I2 through the load. This current also flows through the secondary
winding and sets up an MMF N2.I2 in the magnetic circuit. This MMF tends to alter the flux in the
magnetic circuit (similar to the effect of armature reaction in a DC machine that modified the air-
gap field). However, as long as the applied voltage to the primary, V1 is kept constant, the mutual
flux in the core should be constant. (equation 2.12). Hence, the primary winding which was earlier
taking just a no-load current I0 takes an additional current I2’ such that
N1 .I2’ = N2 . I2
I2’ is in phase opposition to I2. The net primary current is I1 = I2’ + I0. Not all the flux produced by
I1 links with the secondary. There is a leakage flux that induces an EMF in the primary winding
alone. The supply voltage should provide for this EMF. It is represented by the voltage drop in the
inductive reactance X1 called primary leakage reactance through which I1 flows. The primary
winding also has a resistance R1 across which the voltage drop is R1.I1. Hence, for a practical
transformer,
V1 = E1 + (R1 + jX1)I1. (2.20)
We also have a leakage flux produced by the secondary current that links with the secondary
winding alone. For that we have the
V1 jX1 I1
secondary leakage reactance. Therefore, on
the secondary side we have,
R1 I1 V2 = E2 – (R2 + j X2) I2. (2.21)
E1 Fig 3.6 shows the complete phasor diagram
of a single-phase transformer delivering a
I 2' I1 partially inductive load on the secondary
side.
I0
Φ

I2

V2
jX2 I2
E2 R2 I2

Fig 2.6 It shows the phasor diagram of the

transformer corresponding to the equivalent
circuit diagram in figure 4.7a.
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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

2.3.5 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT AND EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE OF A TRANSFORMER

As the transformer is not ideal, the equivalent circuit discussed in section 2.3.1 and shown in
Fig. 2.4 needs modification. The equivalent circuit for a practical transformer is shown in Fig 2.7a.

Ideal
R1 jX1 I1 I 2' transformer I2 R2 jX2
I0

V1 RO jX0 E1 E2 ZL
V2
IW Iµ

N1 : N2
Figure 2.7a Equivalent circuit of a single phase transformer with the ideal transformer in position

R1 jX1 I1 I 2' R2' = a2 R2 jX2' = a2 jX2

I0

V1 RO X0 a2 ZL

IW Iµ

Figure 2.7b Equivalent circuit of a single phase transformer with the ideal transformer removed

I1 I 2' R1 jX1 R2' = a2 R2 jX2' = a2 jX2

I0

V1 RO X0 a2 ZL

IW Iµ

Figure 2.7c Simplified equivalent circuit of a single phase transformer

Re1 jXe1

a2 ZL

Figure 2.7d Representation by a single equivalent resistance and leakage reactance

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

Just as the load ZL was referred to the primary side as ZL’ in (2.17), it is possible to express the
secondary resistance R2 and leakage reactance X2 as quantities referred to the primary side. They
then become:
R2' = a 2 R2 (2.22)

and X 2' = a 2 X 2 (2.23)

Thus in the Figure 2.7b, the ideal transformer is eliminated. In the simplified equivalent circuit of
fig 2.7c, the shunt branch consisting of R0 and jX0 is shifted to the extreme left. For the sake of
further simplification wherein an approximate representation is sufficient, the parallel combination
of R0 and jX0 that appears across a constant voltage V1 is neglected. This approximate representation
is shown in Figure 2.7d. The current causing the primary winding drops is now I2’ which can be
taken to be equal to I1 (I0 is neglected) while performing calculations. The equivalent impedance of
the transformer in the circuit shown in Figure 2.7d is given by
Re1 = R1 + R2' = R1 + a 2 R2 (2.24a)

X e1 = X 1 + X '2 = X 1 + a 2 X 2 (2.24b)

The equivalent becomes

Z e1 = Re1 + jX e1 (2.25)

The equivalent circuit, where all quantities are referred to the secondary side of the transformer, is
shown in Figure 2.8, where the equivalent resistance, reactance and impedance values are:
R1
Re2 = + R2 (2.26)
a2
X1
X e2 = + X2 (2.27)
a2
and Z e 2 = Re 2 + jX e 2 (2.28)

I2 Re2 jXe2

V1 V2 ZL
a

Figure 2.8 Representation by a single equivalent resistance and leakage reactance

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

Example 2.1
A 20 kVA, 2400/240 volts transformer has the following resistance and reactance values: R1=0.8 Ω,
X1=3.0 Ω, R2=0.0084 Ω and X2=0.028 Ω. Calculate the equivalent transformer values. a) in the
primary; b) in the secondary

Solution
The primary terms of the transformation ratio.
2400
a= = 10
240
Re1 = R1 + a2 R2 = 0.8 + 100 × 0.0084 = 1.64
Xe1 = X1 + a2 X2 = 3.0 + 100 × 0.028 = 5.8
In the secondary terms.
R1 0. 8
Re2 = 2
+ R2 = 0.0084 + = 0.0164 Ω
a 100
X1 3.0
X e2 = 2
+ X 2 = 0.028 + = 0.058Ω
a 100

2.4 DETERMINATION OF TRANSFORMER PARAMETERS.

In order to determine the equivalent circuit parameter of a transformer, the open circuit test
and a short-circuit test may be conducted.

2.4.1 Open-Circuit Test

The purpose of the open circuit test is to determine the shunt branch elements of R0 and jX0. The test
is performed at rated frequency. Since no load is connected to the secondary, the copper losses in
the secondary are zero and negligible in the primary. The necessary circuit diagram is shown in the
Figure 2.9a. Thus the reading in the wattmeter POC is essentially the core losses.
The readings of wattmeter P, voltmeter V1, and ammeter I1 taken during the open circuit test
are POC, VOC, and IOC respectively, and that the test was made on the high voltage side, the open
circuit parameters referred to the high side may be obtained by substituting into the following
equations

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

P
I1
A
O I
230V
U

D
P V V1
S
T

AUTO

Figure 2.9a Circuit diagram for open circuit on a transformer

2
VOC
R0 = (2.29)
POC

VOC
IW = (2.30)
RO

I µ = I OC
2
- I W2 (2.31)

VOC
XO = (2.32)
Iµ

3.4.2 Short circuit Test

The purpose of the short-circuit test is to determine the equivalent resistance, leakage
reactance and impedance of the transformer windings. The high voltage side of the transformer
under test is connected to the supply and the low voltage side is short circuited by connecting a
short piece of large cross-sectional area copper across its terminals; in effect the secondary is
shorted. The resistance of the copper jumper is almost zero. That is ZL=0. By short circuiting the
secondary, the test provides data that include the effect of primary and secondary resistance, and
leakage but excludes the load impedance. The test is conducted such that the rated current of the
transformer flows into the primary winding. The supply voltage at the primary side to achieve the
rated current to flow is usually of the order of 10 to 20 % of the rated primary voltage. As the supply
voltage applied on the primary of the transformer is reduced the magnitude of the current flowing
through the shunt elements R0 and jX0 are relatively very small and may be ignored from
calculation.

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

Thus the reading of the wattmeter is essentially copper losses in the primary and the secondary

P
I1
I2
A
O I
230V
U

D
P V V1
S
T

AUTO

Figure 2.9b Circuit diagram for short circuit on a transformer

windings. This circuit diagram is show in circuit in the Figure 2.9b. Assuming reading on the
wattmeter P, voltmeter V1, and ammeter I1 taken during the open circuit test are PSC, VSC, and ISC
respectively, and that the test was made on the high side, the equivalent resistance, equivalent
reactance and equivalent impedance may be obtained by substituting values into the following set of
equations:

PSC
Re1 = 2
(2.33)
I SC
2
 VSC 
Xe1 =   - Re12 (2.34)
 I SC 

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

2.5 VOLTAGE REGULATION

The effects of leakage flux and winding resistance in a transformer cause internal voltage
drops that result in different output voltages for different loads. Voltage regulation at a load is the
reduction in the secondary terminal voltage from the no-load secondary side terminal voltage
expressed as percentage of the secondary side no-load terminal voltage. It is commonly used as a
figure of merit when comparing transformers.
V20 - V2
% Voltage regulation = x100 (2.35)
V2
where V20 is the secondary side no-load terminal voltage and V2 is the secondary side full-load
terminal voltage at a particular load. The voltage regulation of a transformer, along with voltage,
current, frequency and apparent power ratings, are required data when specifying replacement
transformers, when selecting transformers for parallel operation, when selecting transformers for
polyphase arrangements, or when selecting transformers that will be used in distribution systems
that feed large induction motors.

2.6 TRANSFORMER LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY

Transformer losses include
(a) the copper losses in the primary and secondary windings I12R1 and I22R2 respectively and
(b) the sum of hysterisis and eddy-current in the iron termed as core losses PC.
The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the output power Pout to the input power Pin.
Pout
η= (2.36)
Pout + PC + ( I 12 R1 + I 22 R2 )

The combined copper losses of both primary and secondary windings may be expressed in
terms of the equivalent resistance referred to the either high side or referred to the low side. That is,
I 12 R1 + I 22 R2 = I 12 Re1 = I 22 Re 2 (2.37)

The equation (3.36) for transformer efficiency becomes:

Pout Pout
η= = (2.38)
Pout + PC + ( I 1 Re1 ) Pout + PC + ( I 22 Re2 )
2

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

2.7 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

Most of the electrical energy is generated and transmitted using a three-phase system that
involves several three-phase voltage transformations. For transforming three-phase power, either a
bank of three identical single-phase transformers suitably connected or one three-phase transformer
can be employed. Under conditions of balanced load and balanced voltages, with three identical
transformers in a given arrangement, each single-phase transformer will carry one third of the total
three-phase load.
A single three-phase transformer for a given rating when compared to a bank of three single
phase transformer weighs lesser, costs lesser, requires lesser floor space and has higher efficiency.
However, the cost of a spare standby three-phase transformer is much greater than that of a spare
single-phase transformer. When fault occurs in one phase of a three-phase transformer, the whole
three-phase transformer must be removed for repair. For example, suppose a manufacturing plant
absorbs 5000 kVA. To guarantee continued service we can install one three-phase 5000 kVA
transformer and keep a second one as a spare. Alternatively, we can install three single-phase
transformers each rated at 1667 kVA and have one spare single-phase transformers rated at 1667
kVA. The three-phase transformer option is more expensive (total capacity: 2 × 5000 = 10000 kVA)
than the single-phase option (total capacity: 4 × 1667 = 6667 kVA).
If a bank of three single-phase transformers is used it is assumed that the following
requirements are met:
• All the three transformers in a three-phase transformer bank will have identical transformation
ratios and thus the same high and low rated voltages.
• All the three transformers will have the same kilovolt-ampere (kVA) rating.
• All the three transformers will be of the same construction, either core or shell.
• All the three transformers will have the same winding resistances, reactances, and impedances.
• All the three transformers will be labeled and polarity marked identically.

2.7.1 THREE PHASE SYSTEMS

For a balanced three phase system the relation between line and phase parameters are listed
below and shown in Fig 3.10a and Fig 3.10b for star and delta connections respectively. VPH and VL
refer to the phase and line voltages in a three-phase system respectively. IPH and IL refer to the
phase and line currents in a three-phase system respectively.

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

[Link] Star connection

In a balanced three phase star system the phase voltage of all the phases are equal in
magnitude and separated by 1200 in phase.

VA IA= IPH= IL
VA

VPH
VAC VAC
VL

1200

VC VC VB
VB

Figure 2.10a Three phase star windings and the relevant phasor diagram

∴ VPH = |VA| = |VB| = |VC| (2.39)

Let the phase angles of the phasors VA, VB and VC be α, β and γ respectively. Then
β-α = γ-β = α-γ = 1200.

The line voltage between phases A and C is VAC = VA - VC (2.40a)

For a balanced system VL = |VAB| = |VBC| = |VCA| = 3 V PH (2.40b)

The phase current is equal to the line current

IPH= IL. (2.40c)

The power of the balanced three circuit is given by

S in VA = 3 (VPH) (IPH) = 3 (VL) (IL) (2.40d)

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

[Link] Delta connection

In a balanced three phase delta system the phase voltage of all the phases are equal in
magnitude and separated by 1200 in phase. Further the line voltage is equal to the phase voltage.

IAB 3 IPH=IL

VA
VA VB VPH = VL

VB
VC VC
Figure 2.10b Three phase delta windings and the relevant phasor diagram

∴ VPH = VL = |VA| = |VB| = |VC| (2.41a)

Let the phase angles of the phasors VA, VB and VC be α, β and γ respectively. Then
β-α = γ-β = α-γ = 1200.

The line current IAB = IA - IB (2.41b)

where IA and IB are the phase currents in phases A and B.

For a balanced system IL = |IAB| = |IBC| = |ICA| = 3 I PH (2.41c)

The power of the balanced three circuit is given by

S = 3 (VPH) (IPH) = 3 (VL) (IL) (2.41d)

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

2.7.2 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTION

The winding of either core-type or shell-type three-phase transformers may be connected in
either wye or delta. Four possible combinations of connections for the three-phase, two winding
transformers are:
a.Υ−∆, b. ∆−Υ, c. ∆−∆ and d. Υ−Υ

a) Three phaseΥ−∆ connections

Power generated at power stations are stepped up to high voltages and transmitted over long
distances. Usually, the generators are connected in star. The long distance high voltage transmission
system is in delta. A wye-delta (Y-∆) connection is generally used in this step up situation. Figure
2.11, gives the connections.
In this connection, the primary line voltage is related to the primary phase voltage by

V LP = 3VφP , while the secondary line voltage is equal to the secondary phase voltage

VφP
V LS = VφS . The voltage ratio of each phase is , a = . So, the overall relationship between line
VφS
voltage on the primary side and the line voltage on the secondary side is

V LP 3VφP
=
V LS VφS (2.42)
= 3a

Fig 2.11 wye / delta connected three phase transformer

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

b) Three phase ∆−Υ connections

The power is received at substations from long distance transmission lines at high voltages.
These transmission lines are usually delta connected. The power distribution at low voltages is in
four wire star system. Transformers used in distribution substations are usually delta / wye
connected and they step down the voltage. The connection diagram is shown in Figure 2.12

Fig 2.12 delta / wye connected three phase transformer

In this connection, , the primary line voltage is equal to the primary phase voltage,

V LP = VφP , while the secondary voltage are related by VLS = 3VφS .

The line-to-line voltage ratio is,

VLP VφP
=
VLS 3VφS
(2.43)
a
=
3
c) The Y-Y connections
These may be used for interconnecting two star connected generators. These also called
interconnecting transformers. Figure 2.13 gives the details.
In this connection, the primary line voltage is related to the primary phase voltage by

V LP = 3VφP , while the secondary line voltage is equal to the secondary phase voltage

V LS = 3VφS . The overall voltage ratio on the transformer is

V LP 3VφP
=
VLS 3VφS (2.44)
=a

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

Fig 2.13 wye / wye connected three phase transformer

The Y-Y connection has two very serious problems:

i. If loads on the transformer circuit are unbalanced, then the voltages on the phases of the
transformer can become severely unbalanced.
ii. Third harmonic voltages can be large.

d) The ∆−∆ connections

The delta / delta connected transformers are usually used to interconnect two transmission
system parts with different voltages. Figure 3.14 gives the details of connection if such types of
transformers.

Fig 2.14 delta / delta connected three phase transformer

In this connection, V LP = VφP and V LS = VφS , so the relationship between primary and

secondary line voltage is,

VLP VφP
=
VLS VφS (2.45)
=a

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

Example 2.2
A three single-phase step-up transformers rated 40 MVA, 13.2/80 kV are connected in delta-wye on
a 13.2 kV transmission line (figure 4.12). If they feed a 90 MVA load, calculate;
• the secondary line voltage
• the currents in the transformer windings
• The incoming and outgoing transmission line currents.

Solution
The phase-voltage across the primary winding V1 = 13.2 kV.
The phase-voltage across the secondary is V2 = 80 kV.
The line-voltage between the outgoing line 1, 2, and 3 is:

V2= 80 x 3 = 138.56 kV
The MVA load carried by each transformer is:
Single phase MVA S = 90/3 = 30 MVA
The current in the primary winding is
IPH1= (Single phase MVA) / (Primary phase voltage) = (30 x 106) /(13.2 x 103) = 2272.72 A
The current in the secondary winding is
I PH2= (Single phase MVA) / (Secondary phase voltage) = (30 x 106) /(80 x 103) = 375 A

The line current in delta connected winding line current is 3 times the phase current.
The current in each incoming line (Delta side) in phases A, B, and C is:

IL1 = ( 3 )(2272) = 3936.48 A

The line current in star connected winding line current is equal to the phase current.

∴The current in each outgoing line A, B, and C is:

IL2 = 375 A

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

Example 2.3
Three single-phase transformers are connected in delta-delta to step down a line voltage of 138 kV
to 4.16 kV to supply power to a manufacturing plant. The plant draws 21 MW at a lagging power
factor of 0.86. Calculate:
• the apparent power draw by the plant
• the apparent power supplied by the HV line
• the current in the HV lines
• the currents in the LV lines
• The currents in primary and secondary windings of each transformer.
• The load carried by each transformer.
Assume losses in the transformers are negligible.
Solution
The apparent power drawn by the plant is:
S 21
P= = = 24.42 MVA
cos θ 0.86
The transformer bank itself absorbs a negligible amount of active and reactive power because the
I2R losses and the reactive power associated with the mutual flux and leakage flux are small. It
follows that the apparent power furnished by the HV line is also 24.42 MVA
The line current in each HV line is:
S 24.4 × 10 6
I L1 = = = 102.16 A
3 VL1 3 138000
The line current in the LV line is:
S 24.4 × 10 6
I L2 = = = 3386.38 A
3 VL2 3 × 4160
The phase current in the primary winding is:
I L1 102.16
I PH1 = = = 58.98 A
3 3
The phase current in secondary winding is:
I L2 3386.38
I PH2 = = = 1955.13 A
3 3
Because the plant load is balanced, each transformer carries one third of the total load or 24/3 = 8.13
MVA.
The transformer load is also obtained by:
S = VPH1 I PH1 = (13.8 x 103)(58.9) = 8.13 x 106 VA = 8.13 MVA
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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

2.8 AUTO-TRANSFORMER

Two-winding transformers have separate primary and secondary windings. These windings
are magnetically linked and are electrically isolated. For the case of power system transformers, in
which large transformation ratios are involved and safety plays a dominant role, the electrical
isolation of the primary and secondary windings is necessary.

However, when the transformation ratio is close to unity and electrical isolation between the
two windings is less critical, an auto-transformer consisting of a single tapped winding on a
transformer core can be used with distinct advantages instead of a two-winding transformer. The
same fundamental consideration discussed for transformers having two separate windings hold true
for the auto-transformer also.

Let us consider a two-winding transformer shown in figure 2.15a. The auto-transformer

arrangement is shown in figure 2.15b. It has only one winding. This winding has N1 turns and
primary voltage V1 is applied across these N1 turns. Let the secondary terminal be across N2 turns of
the same winding as illustrated in the figure 2.15b. The voltage across the secondary terminals is V2.
These relations apply to the auto-transformer arrangement:

Ideal I1
transformer
I1 N1 / N2 I2

I2
V2 V1 N1
V1
N2
V2
(I2-I1)

2.15a A two-winding transformer. 2.15b An auto-transformer.

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

The EMFs across the primary and secondary terminals are proportional to the number of turns
between their respective terminals.
E1 = 4.44 Φ f N1 (2.46)
E2 = 4.44 Φ f N2 (2.47)

Ignoring drops in the windings,

V1 ≅ E1 = 4.44 Φ f N1 (2.48)
V2 ≅ E2 = 4.44 Φ f N2 (2.49)

Ignoring the losses in the auto-transformer the input power must be equal to the output power.
V1 I1 = V2 I2 (2.50)

From above equations, it follows that the same relation that held for two winding transformer (2.4),
holds good for the auto-transformer, i.e.,
V1 I 2 N 1
= = = a (2.51)
V2 I 1 N 2

Two distinct advantages may be observed from above:

(a) SAVING IN COSTS WHILE USING AUTO-TRANSFORMERS WHEN

TRANSFORMATION RATIO APPROACHES 1.0
The first advantage that may be observed is that the copper used to make an auto-
transformer is lesser than that required to make a two winding transformer of the same
capacity. The copper required to make a transformer winding is proportional to the number of
turns and the thickness of the conductor. The thickness of the conductor is proportional to the
current carried in the conductor. Therefore, it may be reasonably assumed that the copper used
to make a winding shall be proportional to the product of current and the number turns of the
winding (N.I)
Two-winding transformer case:
∴ Total copper used in the two-winding transformer is proportional to:
N1 .I1 + N2 .I2.
The rating of the transformer is V1.I1.

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

Auto-transformer case:
In comparison, the copper used in the auto-transformer with the same rating V1.I1 is
proportional to:
(N1-N2).I1 + N2 .(I2-I1)
= N1 .I1 + N2 .I2 - 2 (N2 .I1). (3.52)
N2
= N1 .I1 + N2 .I2 - 2 (N1 .I1)
N1

I 2 N1
From (3.52) = = a and it follows that N1 .I1 = N2 .I2.
I1 N 2

N2
Therefore, Amount of copper is proportional to: 2(N1 .I1) - 2 (N1 .I1)
N1

1
= 2(N1 .I1) ( 1- ).
a

The above may be interpreted as follows. From the figure 2.15b, it is seen that a > 1.0. If the
transformation ratio a approaches the value of 1.0, the amount of copper used approaches a
small value. Therefore, if a transformer action is required to link two nearly equal voltage
circuits such that the transformation ratio is nearly equal to 1.0 (but not equal), then it is much
more cost efficient to use an auto-transformer.

(b) LESSER LOSSES

The second advantage that may be derived by using an auto-transformer lies in the fact that
the net current that flows through N2 turns of an auto-transformer is I2 - I1. The current I1
flows on through (N1 - N2) turns of the coil. Therefore the copper losses that occur in an auto-
transformer achieving the same task as that of two winding transformer is much lesser.
Therefore an auto-transformer of same power rating and transformation ratio shall be more
efficient and cheaper as compared to a two winding transformer.

However, an auto-transformer shall be unable to provide the electrical isolation provided by a

two winding transformer between the two electrical circuits connected to its primary and secondary
sides.

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

2.9 Parallel Operation of Transformers

In paralleling single-phase transformers, besides observing the poalarities in making physical
connections, some other conditions are necessary. They are discussed below.

V1 V1

Transformer-1 Transformer-2
N1 / N2 N1 / N2
I1 I1

I2 I2

V2 V2

Figure 2.16 Transformer operation in parallel

2.9.1 Equal primary and secondary voltage ratings.

If the voltage ratings are not the same, some windings will be operating at higher and others at
lower voltage than that for which they are designed.
2.9.2 Equal ratios of transformation.
If the ratios of transformation are not the same, there will be circulating currents in the transformer
windings in addition to the exciting currents, when there is no load on the system. They increase the
copper loss, overload the transformer and reduce the overall permissible load kVA.
2.9.3 Ratios of equivalent resistance Re1 to equivalent reactance Xe1.
If the ratios of equivalent resistance Re1 to equivalent reactance Xe1 are not equal, the currents
delivered by the transformers will not be in phase with each other or with the load current; that is,
the transformers will be carrying kilowatt loads that are not proportional to their current load. This
will lead to increase in copper losses and consequent overheating.

These conditions apply equally in paralleling three-phase transformers, but with the added
condition that the secondary voltages must be at compatible phase angles. Not only must the
transformer polarities be observed, but also, the phase sequence must be identical for parallel
transformers. Transformers with similar connections on either side can be connected in parallel.
Further, three-phase transformer banks connected in Y-Y and ∆-∆ can be paralleled if the line
voltage ratios are identical. The phase shifts resulting from ∆-Y or Y-∆ connections generally
preclude the use of either in parallel with a configuration that is different. However, the secondary

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

voltages of a Y-∆ or ∆-Y system are either in phase or are 60o out of phase, depending upon the way
the connections are made; two such systems can therefore be paralleled with proper conditions.
2.10 Instrument Transformers
In order to measure large currents and high voltages using standard low-range instruments,
accurate-ratio transformers are used in conjunction with the instruments. These transformers are
called instrument transformers and there are two types: current transformers and potential
transformers. These instrument transformers are described in the following text.

2.10.1 Current transformers

The current transformers (CT) are connected in series in the circuit in which the current is to
be measured as shown in Figure 2.17a. The current in the secondary side shall be proportional to the
circuit current I1 and reduced to a value that is amenable to small measuring devices. The ratio of
the secondary current to the primary current is equal to the turns-ratio N1/N2. The phase angle
between the primary and secondary current is very small, usually, much less than one degree. For
large current ratings the conductor in which the current to be measured is fed through the center of
the current transformer core to provide one-turn primary. This type of current transformer is called
toroidal current transformer (Refer to Fig 2.17a). It will have only secondary winding. An additional
advantage in the use of current transformers is the isolation from the line, which may be at a high
potential.

N2
turns N2
turns I1
Current carrying I1
Current carrying
conductor - single I2
I2 conductor -
turn - N1 = 1
single turn - N1
=1 A
A
Figure 2.17a Schematic diagram of a Figure 2.17b Circuit diagram of a
current transformer current transformer

The current transformers should never be operated with the secondary open-circuited. If open-
circuited, the entire primary current becomes excitation current and this results in very high flux and
very high secondary voltage. The insulation will be subjected to undue stress and possible danger to
operations. It is for this reason the secondary circuit is always kept short-circuited when primary
current is flowing. Fig 2.17b shows connection of a current transformer circuitry. The equation
(2.51) holds good for the current transformer.

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

Example 2.4
A current transformer has a rating of 50 VA, Current ratio of 400 A / 5 A, 36 kV, 50 Hz. It is
connected in an AC line carrying a current of 280 A. The total secondary burden is 1.2 Ω. Calculate
a) the secondary current, b) the voltage across the secondary terminals and c) the voltage drop
across the primary.

Solution
I 1 400 N 1
a) The current ratio is = = 80 = 2 =
I2 5 N1 a

a = 0.0125
The secondary current = I2 = a .(I1) = 0.0125 (280) = 3.5 A
The voltage across the secondary = V2 = Z2 . I2 = (1.2) .(3.5) = 4.2 V
The primary voltage = V1 = a (V2) = 0.0125 (4.2) = 0.0525 V.
This is a very small voltage compared to the system voltage. Therefore connecting the CT
primary in series in the line where current is measured does not alter the voltage distribution
significantly.

2.10.2 Potential Transformers

Potential Transformers (PT) are step-down transformers with extremely accurate ratio. They
step down the power circuitry high voltage to a proportional low voltage. The range of the low
secondary voltage is chosen such that it is
I amenable for measurement purposes. The
schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 2.18.
V1 Load

V1

Potential
Transformer
N1 / N2
V2
V
Figure 2.18 Schematic diagram of a
potential transformer

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EET2166 Chapter 2: Transformers

The presence of distributed capacitance as shown in Fig. below makes an invisible connection
which can produce high voltage between secondary winding and ground in both potential
transformer and current transformer. One terminal of the secondary winding is grounded to avoid
fatal shock when touching one of the secondary leads.

Figure 2.19a: Distributed Capacitance for a Potential Transformer

Figure 2.19b: Distributed Capacitance for a Current Transformer

32