Module-5

Superconductors and Advanced materials

Superconductors
Introduction

In 1911 Kamerlingh Onnes found that the resistivity of mercury (Hg) reduced with the reduction
in temperature and fell sharply to ZERO at 4.15 K. This zero resistance state of the substance is
known as superconductivity and the materials exhibiting this property are called as
superconductors.

Temperature dependence of resistivity of a metal.

Most of the metals are good conductors of electricity. These metals have free electrons, they can
move under the influence of an electric field. Because of the loss of electrons, the atoms become
positive ion cores. Due to thermal excitation, the ions will always be oscillating about fixed
positions in the frame work of the metal. These vibrations are called lattice vibrations. The
resistance of a metal to the flow of current is caused by the scattering of the conduction electrons
by lattice vibrations. When the temperature increases, The amplitude of lattice vibrations also
increases there by increasing the resistance. The resistance decreases with temperature and reaches
a minimum value at T=0. This resistance is known as residual resistance. The residual resistivity
𝜌o at T=0, is due to impurities in the metal. The variation of resistivity with temperature is given
by Matthissen’s rule.
𝜌 = 𝜌o + 𝜌(T)
Where 𝜌 → is the resistivity of the given metal,
𝜌o →is the residual resistivity
𝜌(T) → is the temperature dependent part of resistivity

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Additional information
Effect of temperature and impurity on electrical resistivity (Matheissen rule)

Moving charges suffer two types of collisions namely collision with impurities and collision with
pure lattice points. According to Matheissen the electrical resistivity increases if collision between
free electrons and lattice points increases.
At lower temperature collision with impurities is more and this gives a resistivity called residual
resistivity or impure resistivity (𝜌i). It exists even at 0K. Residual resistivity increases with the
increase in impurity concentration.
As temperature increases the amplitude of lattice vibration increases and hence the rate of collision
1
 also increases. During the collision between free electron and the lattice point, energy is exchanged
between them in the form of a quantized particle called phonon. The resultant resistivity is known
as thermal resistivity (𝜌ph). Thermal resistivity increases with the increase in temperature.
At any given temperature the net resistivity is given by
𝜌 = 𝜌𝑖 + 𝜌𝑝ℎ
This is known as Matheissens equation. 

A Graph of 𝜌 versus T is as shown in fig.

p


Concept of phonon
T
An imaginary particle associated with thermal energy and sound energy that arises due to lattice
vibrations is known as phonon. It is analogous to photon in EM energy. It associated with a field
called phonon field
In solids crystals atoms are arranged in a 3-D spatial pattern called lattice. Atoms are also called
as lattice pints and they vibrate either due to their own thermal energy or due to external force.
This generates mechanical waves that carry heat & sound through the material. A packet of these
waves can travel with definite energy and momentum and can be treated as particle called phonon.

NOTE: Phonons and electrons are the two main types of elementary particles in solids. Electrons are responsible for
electrical properties of materials whereas phonons decide speed of sound and how much heat the material can take to change
its temperature. Phonons are essential in the phenomenon of superconductivity
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Temperature dependence of resistivity

Metals are very good conductors of electricity and offer very less resistance. Resistance and
resistivity decrease with the decrease in temperature and becomes 0 at 0 K (for pure conductors).
However according to Matheissen there exists some residual resistance even at 0K due to
impurities and imperfections. In some materials (such as Mercury, Lead, Zinc etc) resistivity
suddenly decreases to ZERO below certain temperature. These variations are shown in fig

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 The phenomenon in which electrical resistance of materials suddenly disappears (becomes 0)
below certain temperature is known as superconductivity and the material is known as
superconductor

Critical temperature

The temperature at which the normal material abruptly loses its resistivity and becomes
superconductor is known as critical temperature or transition temperature (TC). Some of the
examples are given below (critical field will be explained latger).

Material Critical temperature Critical field

(TC in K) (HC in Wb/m2)
Lead (Pb) 7.19 0.0803
Mercury (Hg) 4.15 0.0411
Tin (Sn) 3.72 0.0305
Indium (In) 3.41 0.0281
Aluminum (Al) 1.18 0.0105
Zinc (Zn) 0.85 0.0054

Additional information-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Persistent current
A superconductor is a perfect conductor. Once a current is started in a closed loop of
superconducting wire, this current will continue flow around the loop without any resistive loss as
long as the wire is kept below critical temperature. Such a steady current is known as persistent
current. Experimental evidence shows that the decay time exceeds 105 years.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------end.

Meissner Effect

When a superconductor above the critical temperature is placed in external magnetic field, it allows
field lines to pass through. If, now, it is cooled below the critical temperature the magnetic lines
are expelled from the interior of the superconductor. This is known as Meissner effect

3
Additional information----------------------------------------------------------------------
Behavior of superconductor in magnetic field
The critical temperature and hence superconducting state depends on the strength of the magnetic
field in which the material is placed. At lower fields the magnetic lines are expelled by the material
(ie, they cannot enter) and hence superconductor is a perfect dia magnet. In fact this is an essential
property of the superconductor. This clearly shows that superconductors develop negative
magnetization and hence negative magnetic susceptibility.

The relation between magnetic field (B), field intensity (H) and intensity of magnetization (I) is

𝐵 = 𝜇0(𝐻 + 𝐼)
Since B = 0 inside the superconductor
0 = 𝜇0(𝐻 + 𝐼)
𝐼 = −𝐻
𝐼
𝜒=−
𝐻
A graph of I v/s H is as shown

If the field is gradually increased, magnetic field lines start entering the material and at certain
field value, it loses its superconducting property. The converse of this is also true.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------end.
Critical field (HC)

The superconducting property can be destroyed by increasing the magnetic field. The minimum
external magnetic field at which the superconductor loses its superconductivity and converts into
normal conductor is known as critical field (HC). Some examples are given in the above table

The critical field is a function of temperature. As temperature increases critical field decreases. It
is given by

4
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Additional information………………………………………………………………….
Critical current (IC)

The minimum value of current that can be passed in a superconductor without destroying
superconductivity is known as critical current.
The magnetic field produced in a superconductor ring of radius r is given by

𝐼𝑐
𝐻𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑟
Characteristics of superconductor (Properties of superconductor)

Following are some of the important properties of superconductor

i. The resistivity is zero below critical temperature.
ii. They carry current for indefinite time (called persistent current) without any loss
iii. Entropy of superconductor is very less. Hence superconducting state is more ordered
than normal
iv. They are diamagnetic in nature and have negative magnetic susceptibility
v. The superconducting nature can be removed by applying magnetic field called ‘critical
field’
vi. Critical temperature is found to be decreasing with increase in mass number (also called
isotopic effect)
vii. Ferro magnets never become superconductor
viii. Good conductors at room temperature are not superconductors
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Types of superconductors
The Classification is based on the response shown by the super conductors in the applied magnetic field
The response curve of magnetization v/s applied magnetic field show a different nature of variation for
different category of superconductors • This classification provides useful information for the selection
of super conductors in the development of high field magnets.
Superconductors are divided into two types namely Type – I and Type – II superconductors
Type – I Superconductors
Type 1 superconductors are called soft superconductors, which obeys Meissner effect. Which are
having only one critical field.
In these superconductors
• The transition from superconducting state to normal conducting state occurs sharply at HC.
• They exhibit complete Meissner effect and hence perfect dia magnets.
• The magnetization grows proportionately and drops suddenly at HC.
• Type-I exists only in two states namely superconducting state (below HC) and normal
conducting state (above HC).
• They have very low critical field and hence are known as soft superconductors.
• They are not suitable to build huge magnets.
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Ex: Aluminum (0.01T),

Lead (0.08 T),
Indium (0.03T) etc

Type – II Superconductors

Type-II superconductors are called Hard superconductors, which obeys Meissner effect partialy.
Which are having two critical fields.
In these superconductors
• The transition from superconducting state to normal conducting state occurs gradually as
the magnetic field is increased from HC1 to HC2.
• They exhibit partial Meissner effect and hence are not perfect dia magnets.
• Magnetization grows linearly up to HC1 and then starts decreasing. It vanishes completely
at HC2.
• Type-II exists in three states namely superconducting state (below HC1) normal conducting
state (above HC2) and mixed state (HC1<H< HC2).
• Between HC1 & HC2 the material is in magnetically mixed state and electrically a
superconductor
• Since HC2 >> HC1 they can hold large magnetic field. Hence they are called as hard
superconductors.
• Ex: Nb-Sn (24.5 T),
Nb-Ti (15.7 T),
Nb3Ge (38 T), etc

Additional Information…………………………………………………………………………..
Isotope effect
The critical temperature of superconductors decreases with increase in atomic mass. This is known
as isotopic effect. The relation between them approximately is

1
𝑇𝐶𝛼
√𝑀
Ex: TC is 4.161 K for 199Hg and 4.126 K for 204Hg
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------end
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BCS theory
To explain the superconductivity phenomena, the three scientists Bardeen, Cooper and Schieffer
(BCS) proposed a theory in 1957 is called BCS theory. It is mainly based on the concept of cooper
pair.

➢ Cooper pair is a pair of two electrons having opposite spin and momenta. Electrons are paired via
the lattice vibration. Cooper pairs have mass 2me, charge 2e and total spin 0.
➢ When an electron is moving near a lattice plane it exerts force of attraction on the positive charges
of the lattice ions. As a result lattice is deformed and positive charges are pulled towards electron.
➢ Another electron moving nearby this region is attracted by the increased positive charge cloud. If
this attraction is stronger than the repulsion between electrons then two electrons are coupled and
form a pair called cooper pairs.

➢ The formation of cooper pair is possible only through lattice deformation or lattice vibration.
Theenergy is exchanged between lattice and the electron through a quantized particle called
phonon. Hence cooper pair is treated as ‘electron-electron interaction through phonon’. Such
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interactions are effective only at low temperature

➢ Thus, formed electron pairs will be having good correlation (good understanding!) and stay
together over large distance (> 10-6m). The number of cooper pairs increases within no time
and all of them will be having single wave function. They can be treated as a single
‘macromolecule’. The entire set of electron pairs is now moving in particular direction and
constitute electric [Link] resist (or oppose) such a current, one has to alter the correlated
motion of all the pairs (not justsome individual electrons). Since it requires a relatively large
amount of energy, current persists for a long duration. This is how zero resistance state can be
explained.

The binding energy of cooper pair is called as energy gap. It is given by

𝐸𝑔 = 3.53𝑘𝑇𝐶

Where k is Boltzmann constant and TC is critical temperature. Eg is very low (about 10-3eV).

Additional information…………………………………………………………………
BCS theory also explains the Meissner effect. The speed of cooper pair decreases when the
superconductor is placed in external magnetic field. As a result emf is induced which in turn
expelsmagnetic field lines from the superconductor (according to Lenz law).
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------end.

High Temperature superconductivity

High TC superconductors are oxides not metals or compounds. Each unit cell consists of one atom
of rare earth element, two barium atoms, three copper atoms and seven oxygen atoms. Hence they
are termed as 1-2-3-7 compounds. The layers of oxygen and copper are sandwiched between the
layers of other elements. Some interesting factors about high TC super conductors are

• They are Type-II in nature having very high HC2 value

• Most of them are ceramic oxides. Actually, ceramics are insulators at normal temperatures
but convert as superconductor at low temperature
• The ceramic crystal consists of layers of copper oxide sandwiched between the layers of
other metal oxides
• Ex : Barium copper oxide, Yttrium barium copper oxide etc
• They possess a special type of crystal structure called perovskite structure and 1-2-3-7
chemical composition, ie 1 unit of rare earth element, 2 units of Ba, 3 units of Cu and 7
units of O (R1Ba2Cu3O7)
• The superconducting property is found to be increasing with the increase in Cu layers
• As on today TC = 133 K is achieved in mercury-based copper oxide.
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Additional information……………………………………………………………………………
Superconductors are divided into low TC and high TC superconductors. Broadly, superconductors
having TC below 27 K are called low TC and above 27 K are called high TC superconductors. The
first high TC superconductor was created by Bednorz JG and Miller KA. They synthesized
LaBaCuO exhibiting superconductivity at 35 K
Some properties are
➢ They are highly brittle. Hence they cannot be stretched into wires
➢ Their magnetic properties are highly anisotropic
➢ BCS theory cannot explain high TC superconductivity
➢ Isotopic effect is absent in high TC superconductors
➢ They possess a special type of crystal structure called pervoskite structure
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------end.
Applications of superconductor
Maglev Vehicles:
Vehicles which are magnetically levitated are called maglev vehicles. Maglev vehicles are (coaches)
do not slide over steel rails but float on a four inch air cushion over a strongly magnetized track
.magnetic levitation is based on Meissner Effect.

Maglev coaches consists on Aluminum guide way by magnetic levitation. The magnetic levitation is
produced by enormous magnetic repulsion between super-conducting magnet inside the vehicle and
electric currents in the Aluminum guideway. That is superconducting coils produce the magnetic
repulsion in order to levitate the coaches. The flow of the currents through the coils could be related to
the position and instantaneous speed of Maglev vehicles. The currents in the Aluminum guide way not
only produce magnetic field to levitate the vehicle but also help in propelling the vehicle forward.
Maglev coaches are provided with retractable wheels. The vehicle runs on the guide way with these
wheels as aeroplane runs during its take off. Once the vehicle is levitated in air, the wheels are retracted
into the body. The vehicle is levitated above the guide way at height of about 10 to 15 cm. When the
vehicle stops, the wheels are drawn out and the vehicle settles slowly on the guideway by running over
a small distance. As there does not exist mechanical friction, speeds up-to 500km/hr can easily be
achieved.
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Applications of superconductor.
• Superconductors are used to build superconducting magnets. Type-II superconductors are
used for this purpose
• Superconductors and hence superconducting magnets are used in MagLevs.
• SQUIDS are used in magnetometers, quantum computers, nondestructive testing of
materials and switches
• Loss less power transmission is one of the promising application of superconductor
• Type-II superconductors are used in bubble chambers, particle accelerators and cryo
electronic microscopes.
Since superconductivity is a low temperatur phenomena not many applications are
found atcommon man level.
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Quantum Tunneling and Josephson junction

If a thin layer of insulator is sandwiched between two pieces of superconductor the cooper pairs
can tunnel through the insulator (without being destroyed) giving a current from one
superconductor into the other. This is known as quantum tunneling. This is also known as
Josephson Effect. Tunneling is possible only if the insulating layer is very thin (about 2nm or
even less). This type of tunneling is not permitted in classical physics.
The superconductor-insulator-superconductor layer is known as Josephson junction. In
practice such a junction is manufactured by depositing a thin insulating layer of an oxide of 1nm-
2nm thickness on the surface of one superconductor and then placing the second superconductor
on topof this.

There are two types in Josephson Effect namely DC Josephson Effect and AC Josephson Effect

DC Josephson Effect

When two superconductor slabs are joined through a thin (1nm-2nm thick) insulating layer, the
Cooper pairs from one side tunnel into the other side and constitute super current without any
support of external emf. This is known as DC Josephson Effect.

The insulating layer introduces phase difference () between wave function of cooper pairs on
either side and hence super current appears even though the applied voltage is zero. Super current
(or junction current) is given by

𝐼𝐽 = 𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜙

Here Ic is the maximum junction current that depends on the thickness of insulating layer. It is
quite small (between 1µA to 1 mA).

AC Josephson Effect

If we apply DC voltage across the junction it introduces an additional phase difference between
the Cooper pairs and an alternating current is generated. This is known as AC Josephson Effect.

𝐼𝐽 = 𝐼𝑐 sin ( 𝜙 +del 𝜙)
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The frequency of alternating current is directly proportional to applied voltage V and is given by
2eV
ν=
ℎ
Where 2eV is the energy difference between the cooper pairs on either side of the junction
Thus if a voltage of if a voltage of about 1mV is applied, and AC frequency of about 484 MHz can be
obtained.
SQUIDS
SQUID stands for superconducting quantum interference device, used to measure extremely weak
magnetic field. It is basically a sensitive magnetometer. Fields as small as 10-21 T produced by
biological currents in human heart and brain can be measured.
There are two types in SQUID namely DC SQUID and RF SQUID (or AC SQUID)

DC-SQUID

It consists of two Josephson junctions (P and Q) arranged in parallel and DC source is connected
across X and Y. As a result biasing current enters at X and leaves at Y. Let I1 and I2 be the tunneling
currents across P and Q. when magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the arrangement, a phase
difference is introduced between I1 and I2 and they interfere and produce interference effect (very
much similar to Young’s double slit experiment).

In superconductors the current is caused by the Cooper pairs. Cooper pairs are associated with de
Broglie waves. Applied magnetic flux introduces phase shift between these waves and hence they
interfere when arrive at Y. The resultant current is

𝜋𝜙
𝐼𝑐 sin (𝜙 )
𝐼𝑟 = 0
𝜋𝜙
(𝜙 )
0
Where  is the flux linked with the SQUID and 0 = (h/2e = 2.06 ×10-15 wb/m2) called fluxoid. A
graph of Ir/Ic v/s (/0) is as shown. The graph is exactly similar to intensity distribution in single
slit diffraction of light

By measuring the resultant current one can measure the applied magnetic flux. It is possible to
measure very small magnetic flux using this arrangements.
DC SQUIDS are used in

• Measurement of magnetic fields as small as 10-21 T produced by biological currents in

human heart and brain can be measured.
• Geophysical measurements (connected with rocks, seismic waves etc)
• Nondestructive testing (testing the material without damaging it)
• fabrication of qubits
• Very precise and accurate measurement of voltage

RF-SQUID

The RF (Radio Frequency) SQUID is a one-junction SQUID loop and is used as a magnetic field
detector. Although it is less sensitive than the DC SQUID, it is cheaper and easier to manufacture
and is therefore more commonly used. It is as shown in fig (i)

RF SQUID loop is placed near a LC circuit which is connected to RF AC source as shown in Fig
(ii). The loop is immersed in a magnetic field whose flux is  (to be measured). Now pass an
oscillating current (I) through LC circuit from the RF source. It induces magnetic flux RF. This
flux is coupled with the loop. The total external flux is
Φ𝑒𝑥 = Φ + Φ𝑅𝐹

The loop is linked to circuit through mutual inductance. By chance if the flux in the loop ()
changes, there will be corresponding changes in ex. Any changes in the total flux ex will induce
emf (according to Faraday’s law) in the LC circuit and hence voltage (V) across LC changes. By
measuring the change in V one can measure the external magnetic flux () and its variation w.r.t.
time.

RF-SQUIDS are used in

 • bio magnetism (ie, to measure magnetic field produced by different organs of our body)
• geophysical measurements (connected with rocks, seismic waves etc)
• non destructive testing (testing the material without damaging it).

Advanced Engineering Materials

Nanomaterials:
The concept of nanomaterials began with physicist Richard Feynman's 1959 lecture, "There's Plenty of
Room at the Bottom," which discussed the potential of manipulating matter at the atomic and molecular
scale. The term "nanotechnology" was coined by Norio Taniguchi in 1974 to describe precision
engineering at the nanoscale. The study of materials whose dimension range from a few micrometers to
nano meters is called nanoscience, where the properties of the materials are size specific. Nano is not a
new terminology; it exists from the ancient times. The colored glass imprints present during Roman
Empire is due to nanotechnology. Nanomaterials are obtained by arranging matter by controlling the
dimension from few micrometers to nanometer. The state of matter around this size is referred to as
“Mesoscopic State”.
Density of states in 1D, 2D and 3D structures:
The materials of nano dimension can be visualized as follows.

Bulk material of 3-dimensions as a reduction in one dimension the resulting structure

in2 dimensions is called a film.

If the reduction is in 2 dimensions the resulting structure is in 1 dimension it is quantum wire.

If the reduction is in all the 3 directions the resulting structure is quantum dot. It is also called
nanoparticle or cluster.
Charge carriers are able to move in all directions in a 3-D material, confined to a plane in a film in
only one direction in a quantum wire but in a 0-D structure they will remain confined to a very
small space.

The variation of density of states for a 3-D material is parabolic in shape. Though it applies for all
energy bands let us consider for the conduction band of the material.

For a 2-D structure the density of states denoted as D (E) varies as step function. There is sudden
rises in D (E) at energy values 𝐸1, 𝐸2, etc.
For a quantum wire of 1-D structure, the density of states variation is smooth there are density
peaks at energy values 𝐸1, 𝐸2 ... and decreases rapidly in the range in between.

The density of state is of the order of 109/m eV.

For a 0-D structure, the permitted energy values are just discrete because of confined condition for
the electrons.

Synthesis: Top - down and Bottom–up approach

Top-down approach:
It involves starting with a larger piece of material and reduces its dimensionsuntil a nanomaterials
is obtained from it by breaking the material. Top-down lithographic approaches offer arbitrary
geometrical designs and good nanometer-level precision and accuracy. Lithography in general
involves the patterning of a surfacethrough exposure to light, ions or electrons, and then subsequent
etching and deposition of material on to that surface to produce the desired device.
Example: Ball milling, spray pyrolysis, laser ablation, etc

Bottom-up approach:
Bottom up approach refers to the buildup of a material from the bottom: atom by atom, molecule by
molecule or cluster by cluster.
Both approaches play very important role in modern industry and most likely in nano technology as well.
There are advantages and disadvantages in both approaches.
Example: Wet chemical synthesis such as sol-gel, solution combustion, hydrothermal, evaporative
decomposition, reverse micellar, surface modifier, solid state synthesis, etc.

Nanomaterials Properties:
❖ Size-dependent properties: Nanomaterials exhibit unique properties due to their small size, such as
quantum effects and increased surface area to volume ratio.
 ❖ Optical properties: Many nanomaterials display interesting optical properties, including plasmonic
effects and quantum confinement.
❖ Mechanical properties: Nanomaterials can have enhanced mechanical properties, such as increased
strength and flexibility.
❖ Electrical properties: Some nanomaterials exhibit excellent electrical conductivity or
semiconducting behavior, making them useful for electronics and sensors.
❖ Chemical properties: Nanomaterials may have different chemical reactivity compared to bulk
materials, leading to novel applications in catalysis and chemical sensing.

Applications
❖ Electronics and optoelectronics: Nanomaterials are used in electronic devices like transistors,
LEDs, and solar cells due to their unique electronic properties.
❖ Catalysis: Nanomaterials with high surface areas and tailored structures are used as catalysts for
various chemical reactions.
❖ Biomedical applications: Nanomaterials are used in drug delivery, imaging, and tissue engineering
due to their biocompatibility and unique properties.
❖ Energy storage and conversion: Nanomaterials are used in batteries, fuel cells, and
supercapacitors to improve energy storage and conversion efficiency.
❖ Environmental remediation: Nanomaterials are used for water purification, air filtration, and
environmental sensing due to their high surface area and reactivity.

Shape Memory Alloys

Shape Memory Alloys are metals that regain their original shape after being deformed by
appropriate thermal or magnetic procedure.
Normally when a metal is strained beyond its elastic limit, permanent deformation occurs. The
metal will not return to the original shape. But in shape memory alloys when the material is subjected to
deformation, it will deform and in the same state even the deformation force is removed. It will regain the
original shape when it is heated. This effect is called shape memory effect and it is due to thermoelastic
phase transformation through mechanical deformation.
There are two types of shape memory alloys. Certain alloys exhibit shape memory effect while
heating is called one-way SMA. Some alloys exhibit shape memory effect both on heating and cooling are
called two-way SMA. Examples: NiTi, CuZnAl, CuAlNi
 Shape Memory Alloys have two distinct crystal structures or phases. At lower temperature the
crystal structure of shape memory alloy is martensite. In this martensite form the material can be deformed
into any shape. It is a relatively soft phase. At higher temperature, austenite is the crystal structure. It is
the stronger phase of SMA. The austenite and martensite phases are shown in the above figure.

When SMA is heated

it changes to austenite phase from
deformed martensite phase. On cooling it turns back to twinned (deformed) martensite. This is shown in
the above figure.
Characteristics
i) The transformation occurs not only at a single temperature rather they occur over a range of
temperatures.
 ii) During cooling process, martensite starts and ends. During heating process austenite starts and
ends. It is found that they do not overlap with each other and the transformation process exhibits
the form of hysteresis curve as shown in figure.

Applications
i) It can be used as fire safety valve. When fire occurs, SMA component shape will be changed.
ii) It is used as a blood-clot filter. Here, the SMA material is cooled and sent into the vein. Due to
body temperature it gets the original shape and acts as blood clot filter.
iii) Crystallographically the thermoelastic martensites are reversible.
Application of Nitinol
Nitinol is an alloy of about 56% Nickel and 44% Titanium. It was discovered in Naval Ordinance
Laboratory so that it is called as Nitinol. Nitinol remembers its original shape and springs back up to
temperatures around 500C. It can be strained 8 to 10 times more than spring steel without permanent
deformation. The crystal structure of nitinol is different at cold and hot temperatures. At cold temperatures
it is soft and easy to bend whereas at hot temperatures it is stiff and springy.
Nitinol is used to:
i) Seal holes in the heart
ii) Patch up faulty blood vessels
iii) Attach tendons to bones
iv) Knee replacements
v) Replace damaged discs
 Dr. Girish K M
Asst prof. Dept of Physics
DSATM, Bengaluru