Sustainable cities

What are cities

-a defined urban area within a country
-they have a large population size compared to other locations in the country
-they have high population density (number of people living in an area divided by line area)
-they are a built up area;meaning that the land surface is mostly covered by buildings
-extensive infrastructure
-range of functions
What are settlements
-place where people live
-can be as small as a single house in a remote area or as large as a mega cities
-can be permanent or temporary

Relationship between cities and rural areas

-rural areas have lower population density and size, fewer functions, less built-up compared to
cities
-cities and rural areas in many countries are connected by movement of people, goods and
services
●​ Rural urban migration
-migrants——>people who live in cities that originally came from another location in their
country
-moving from rural areas to urban areas(e.g. towns and cities)——>rural-urban migration
-move due to various reasons:
push factors——>make migrants want to leave their place of origin
——>e.g. lack of job opportunities, poor educational facilities, lack of medical
attention, famine, wat
pull factors——>Reasons that attract migrants towards a destination, such as a city
——>e.g. promise of work, better schooling and further education, mroe hospitals
and doctors, political stability

●​ Provision of goods and services

-cities rely on rural areas for much of their food supply; cities have limited space for agricultural
actives
-rural areas that farm can sell at markets in the cities——>exhcnage food products for money,
which becomes their income
How cities affect their inhabitants and the environment

Opportunities provided for people in cities

●​ Education and employment
-education enables people to gain useful skills; can be used for employment, where they get
engaged in paid work.
-Receive wages——>purchase necessities to improve their wellbeing.
-Cities are home to a variety of educational institutions, which can cater to different interests.
-Businesses thrive in cities due to developed infrastructure, availability of service and
opportunities such as education(they can hire directly from a large pull of skilled employees)
-can train employees through work-study arrangements
●​ Technological innovation
-use of scientific knowledge to create new products or services(due to skilled people living in
cities and funding from governments and investors.)

Challenges people in cities face

●​ Increased environmental pollution
-cities are major polluters of air and water——>large amounts of fossil fuels are being
consumed
-environmental pollution is whereby contaminants are produced and released into the physical
environment; eventually harms human health
●​ Water pollution
-water supplies in cities are often affected due to improper management of household and
industrial waste due to inadequate or broken sewage systems.
-water quality reduced——>threatens human health and aquatic life.
●​ Air pollution
-Caused by use of coal to generate electricity, high volume of vehicular traffic and emissions
from factories
-prolong exposure to air pollution can lead to respiratory infection, lung cancer, heart disease
and even death
-poor health subsequently lead to increased demand for healthcare services
●​ Competition for natural resources
-Increase population——>reuqire large amounts of natural resources to build infrastructure and
supply materials for industrial use
-competition arise when there is high demand by cities for limited amount of natural resources
-cities need land, cities expand toward rural areas or parts of current city could be rebuilt to use
land more extensively,
-competition for land causes unhappiness when existing residents are relocated to make way
for new buildings for other uses
-water resources are compromised by competition for and, which limits construction or
expansion of reservoirs. Water catchment areas and groundwater are also affected as more
natural vegetation is converted to concrete surfaces.

How cities can be sustainably managed

Environmental management
●​ Management of physical environment
-regulate the use of natural resources and minimise negative environmental impacts from
human activities
-reducing water pollution through water treatment ponds
-reducing air pollution through laws
-management of hazards
-reducing noise pollution:putting up sound barriers to absorb loud noises from construction
-reduces water pollution:ensure construction trucks are washed off mud before moving to main
roads
-land pollution:proper site to dispose construction waste
-regulate use of natural resources

——>hazads are events that have negative impacts on people, the physical and built
environments and the economy.
——>Human-induced hazards arise from human actions or inactions.
——>Natural hazards arise for processes in the physical environment
——>hazards can turn into disasters, where they can cause damage to people and their
properties.
——>ways to manage threats of hazards:use of better quality building materials, land use
planning

Improve quality of life

-quality of life refers to a person's well-being which is affected by several factors such as
physical and mental health, level of independence and relationship with others

●​ Provide safe housing

-housing refers to structures or buildings constructed to shelter people from weather elements;
places for rest and social gathering; is a basic need.
-squatter settlements——>building homes at locations without obtaining permission;can be
found in unsafe locations;quality of life is poor compared to those who live in formal housing
●​ Providing a variety of transport modes
-refer to ways in which people and good move form one location to another
-there're three main modes:air, land and water.
-travelling around cities be easier
-traffic congestion can be reduced
-environmental pollution in cities can be reduced
●​ Considering needs of different groups
-to ensure good quality of life for elderly and person with disabilities, cities need to be designed
with their needs in mind

Sustainable housing
Different types of housing
●​ What is housing
-refers to structures or buildings developed to shelter people from elements.
-seen as a biased need
-can be built in unplanned or planned fashion
-variety of materials
-can come in all shapes and sizes
-can be permanent or temporary
-housing in cities can be classified according to height and density
-high rise housing——>more than six storeys and require use of lifts——>Associated with
high-density living
-High rise, high density housing found nearer to city centre; low rise, low density housing found
towards fringe of the city
●​ Types of housing commonly available today
-Can categorise and organise housing types using various concepts——>spatial distribution,
housing density, location relative to other activities, type of materials used to build houses,
social relations, technology.
-proper housing plans are importantly for cities to develop sustainably.
-cities and urban populations grow faster than the pace of housing development——>Resulting
in housing shortage
-in discussing sustainable development of cities, consider whether housing is legally or illegally
built.
-legally built——>formla housing——>oftene provided by government housing programmes or
private developers
-illegally/unlawfully built housing——>informal housing——>built by individuals who are unable
to access formal housing
 ●​ Formal housing
-provided by government or private developers with legal rights to occupy the land
-built using high-quality building materials and access to basic services
-Land rights refer to the ability of individuals to freely obtain, use and possess land at their
discretion as long as their activists on the land do not impede on other individual’s rights.
-land rights address ownership of land——>whihc provides security and increase human
capabilities
-without legal rights, individuals may feel less secure about their home.
-refers to housing that is built by those with legal right to occupy the land.
-access to bias needs improves quality of life for residents in these housing developments-a
house built using high-quality building materials can withstand elements such as heavy rain and
strong winds;can protect occupants from basic threats;and last for a long time with minimal
maintenance.
Features of informal housing
-characterized by one or more of the following:self built housing settlements, no legal right to
occupy land and lack of access to basic needs
—those that cannot afford living in formal housing, end up settling within informal housing in
cities or on outskirts of cities as squatters; such settlements commonly referred to as squatter
settlements/informal settlements
-results in issues like social unrest, degradation of environmental quality, facilitates spread of
diseases——>leading squatter settlements regarded as undesirable
-with appropriate intervention, they can be a constructive part of housing solutions for
over-populated cities+aid in sustainable development of cities
●​ Self-built squatter settlements
-informal housing typically built by individuals in an unplanned fashion
-often constructed from scavenged material——>often constructed using inferior building
materials; house are at risk fo collapsing, being flooded on rainy days or catching fire easily

●​ No legal right to occupy land

-built out of necessity on any available accessible plot of lands by residents desperate for
shelter
-many occupy government land or private property which is undeveloped and
unsecured——>often illegal occupants
-might get cleared and residents evicted when discovered by the owner of the land
●​ Lack of access to basic needs
-e.g. electricity, water and sanitation
-due to being built by individuals in areas not meant for housing development
-residents resort to illegally tapping onto nearby electrical grids——>electrocution
risks;siphoning water from nearby pipes and disposing of sanitary waste into ground or nearby
rivers——>risk consumption of contaminated water and waterborne disease

Where different housing types are found in cities

●​ formal housing
typically found on desirable land within a city; can be situated near greenery and amenities,
away from pollution, supported with quality infrastructure
●​ informal housing
typically found in areas of locally unwanted land-waste, usually near landfills, sewage treatment
plants and large polluting industries;often neglected and lack infrastructure
development——>often only available space;slums sometimes found near industrial sites to
save travelling time and cost living near their workplace
●​ Slums and squatter settlements
-unlike slums, squatter settlements may have developed without permission from relevant
authorities or are not built on land approved for housing
-usually do not have legal right to occupy land(do not have security of tensure
-face threat of eviction
-poor living conditions——>safety concerns——>not protected against weather, weak
foundations, fire hazard, built in dense and disorderly manner, lack of basic services (lack of
infrastructure, little access to basic services
*A slum is a broader term for urban areas with poor living conditions, including
deteriorated housing, inadequate infrastructure, and overcrowding, while a
squatter settlement specifically refers to housing built on land without the
owner's permission or legal rights.

Factors affecting location of housing

-land-use planning——>includes guidelines drawn up by planning authorities(Typically practice
zoning as planning control tool for ensuring built environment is well developed;restrict types of
activists and land-use permitted, done to shape layout of cities+enable various types of
developments)
-developers——>private developers, tend to pick sites that are most commercially viable since
they want profit, gov events tend to consider people's need over profits
-informal housing tend to occupy locations near large housing or indubitably
devleopemtns——>benefits from existing infrastructure
-land pockets——>land prices high, house more expensive, some cannot afford, informal
housing is likely to spring up——>important government regulate land prices
-housing financial support(for developers)——>lower cost of building houses——>may
encourage developers to consider building more housing——>prevent housing shortage
——>enable houses to be sold at affordable prices by developers
——>without it, might have more informal settlements——>cannot afford formal housing

How housing affect natural environment

●​ Use of natural resources

-land need to be cleared——>depletion of forests
-more resources (food water, building materials) needed——>extracted from the environment
●​ Environmental pollution
-pollution can be defined as introduction of substances that do not normally belong in the
environment, which in great concentrations, can have harmful effects on plants, animals and
humans
-land pollution——>can lead to long-term damage to land(through soil contamination or garage
and industrial waste and impacts from industries like mining)——>making it unsafe for building
homes
-landfills built by cities to dispose waste products, humans produce vast quantities of waste,
some cities choose to incinerate their waste products to reduce space needed for
disposal(leftover material needs to be properly managed to avoid pollution)
-polite water——>suface runoff from streets carries oil, rubber, heavy metals and other
contaminants from vehicles——>untreated or poorly treated sewage——>Can be low in
dissolved oxygen and high in pollutants;treated sweated can still be high nitrate(a pollutant),
process of removing them is prone to contamination
-groundwater and surface water can be contaminated from many sources(garbage dumps, toxic
waste, chemical storage and use areas, leaking fuel storage tanks, intentional dumping of
hazardous substance
-water chemistry in water bodies can be altered by acid rain, nitrate deposition, ammonium
deposition
LAND AND WATER POLLUTION CAN BE MINIMISED THROUGH PROPER WASTE
MANAGEMENT+USAGE OF NATURAL FERTILERS AND PESTICIES INSTEAD OF
CHEMICALS
●​ Air pollution
-human activities (fossil fuels burnt for energy use and production, emission from identities and
motor vehicles)——>pollute the air
-major environmental risk to health
-impacts people’s health
-reduce air pollution——>many respiratory illness can be avoided
-air pollution can be reduced by a combination of efforts——>encourage use of public transport
etc.
-construction activities work with toxic materials that contribute to air pollution, construction dust
can remain in air for days or even weeks

●​ Concentration
-concentration is always a key factor in discussing pollution.( Smaller concentration might not
create a problem e.g.)
●​ Urbanisation——>can be an effective way to help people live in cities efficiently
●​ Impacts of squatter settle to and slums
-land pollution——>lack of proper garbage disposal system——>dumping of garbage into open
drains and areas outside houses
water pollution——>Absence of proper sanitation facilities,——>open sewage disposal into
water bodies, domestic waste thrown into reviews, contaminated water used for daily chores but
not treated——>diseases spread easily when drinking contaminated water, skin infection when
bathed in the water
-low level of health caused by lack of sanitation, water disposal, crowded living conditions

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
-air pollution——>burning of materials by slum dwellers who scavenge for food and other items;
extraction of copper from wires by burning of the plastic covering

How does access to housing affect people

●​ Provision of basic needs
-provides people with shelter
-formal housing allows access to sanitation——>essential in improving people’s quality of
life——>Reduces outbreak of diseases, improve people's well-being and overall health
-formal city housing——>make access to water and electricity easier——>such infrastructure
usually developed together with housing projects.
●​ Presence of amenities
-other services and amenities are also provided as part of formal urban housing developments
-amenities——>>desirbale or useful features——>make life easier for residents
●​ Presence of communities
-formal urban housing also meets their social needs
-housing developments tend to have space for social gatherings
-interactions and community spirit fostered amongst neighbours——>leads to sense of
belonging and inclusivity for residents
How housing can be sustainably managed
-ensure adequate quality housing
-need as more of global population dwells in cities
●​ Integrated land use planning
-Important for different stakeholders come together to make decisions on how the city should be
developed and managed to coordinate their activities in sustainable fashion——>economic
social and environmental needs can be better met
-refers to process by which needs of different groups and their demands can be resolved to
ensure sustainable development of city
-housing cannot be built independently and away from other city functions, vice versa
-requires coordinations of many stakeholders, which may be difficult due to different
perspectives
●​ Provision of inclusive public housing
-important to provide range of housing to cater to different gourds
- ensuring all of the urban population can have access to housing that meets their varying
needs
-ensuring housing developments can cater to people of all ages and physical
conditions——>enable all residents to feel at ease in their housing estates
-making public housing is costly——>added cost needed to provide access to disadvantaged
groups or groups with special needs
-catering to a variety of housing types mean that more time and effort is needed to vary designs
of public housing
●​ Environmental features in buildings
-promote sustainability——>may lead to cost savings in the long run, but are often expensive to
instal
-many of these features may be perceived as being inconvenient for ments of the public who do
not understand the benefits ——>Education of the population is needed in form of educational
campaigns or outreach programmes, which adds to cost of building houses
●​ Improvements to conditions of slums
-for some, living in informal housing is necessity to survive in the cities
-government in these countries, realise it is more sustainable to enhance living conditions for
those living in those areas than attempting to demolish and resettle occupants
-improving conditions fo slums——>occupants more motivated to invest in their own homes and
make improvements to community infrastructure
-better access to clean water and sanitation services——>raise health levels, reduce threat of
disease
improve quality of life of occupants, but often run contrary to long-term city development plans
since the informal settlements are built on plots of land not intended for housing use——>might
lead to problems in future city developments
-social impacts remain questionable——> crime rates, unemployment and stigmatisation of
those living such circumstances still remain
provision of infrastructure and services on existing housing
●​ site and services scheme
-relocation to new plots with tenure and subsidised basic services
-Plots of land are prepared with service infrastructure in place;and residents build their own
houses. They may also choose to contract work out; security of tenure and adequate
infrastructure to build at one's own pace is provided
-most located on fringe where land costs are much lower than in cities——>might discourage
due to distance to workplace——>more cost for transport
-advantages: Reno gives ability of people to attain homeownership themselves, enable low
income families to obtain affordable housing
-disadvantages:involves relocation——>most projects may be situated further away from city
than their current site——extra travel distances——>increased cost; lack of coordination
between various implementation agencies——>considerbale delay in final provision of services
●​ ‘Self help’ Slum upgrading
-provision of infrastructure and services on existing housing
-some may provide legal title of land to households and provide security of tenure
-cost already also reduced——>do not involve slum clearanc~ or any relocation costs
-due to lack of coordination between various implementation agencies and a “spread” of
responsibility of providing infrastructure and services——>Delay in provision of services
-Benficiaries must bear higher cost of living——>pay for construction, water and electricity costs
—advantages: cheaper alternatives to site-and-services schemes, do not have to replicate to
peripheral areas, existing neighborhoods may be upgrades
-disadvantage as: lack of monitoring of upgrading processes by governments, resulting in poor
maintenance, operational difficulties——>poor administration, circuits view as an excuse for
non-action by government
Factors government need to consider before deficient on upgrading slums or building
public housing:cost, accessibility(location), land availability, number of
people,affordability for people, time taken

FLOODS
Type of floods
●​ Coastal floods
-low-lying coastal areas inundated by water from sea/ocean
-storm surge from intense storms(hurricanes)
-sea level rise
-tsunamis
●​ River floods
-when river cannot hold all the water in its channel, it will overflow its banks and spread out
across the land on either sides of it’s channel, a river flood occurs
●​ Flash floods/pluvial floods
-rapid flooding of low-lying areas in urban areas
-flooding of areas due to heavy rain and excess water cannot be absorbed into the ground
-takes place suddenly and usually does not last for a long time
Causes of floods
 ●​ Rainfall——>intensitve, duration, frequency
-rainfall refers to droplets of water that fall to the ground
-rainfall intensity+total amount of rainwater divided by duration of rainfall
-rainfall frequency—->no. Of times, during a specified period of years, precipitation of a certain
magnitude or greater occurs or will occur at a place
-rainfall-and runoff relationship——>flash floods are rapid-onset hydrologic events that can be
very difficult to forecast. A combination of high rainfall rate with rapid and often very efficient
runoff is cool to most flash flood events
-Urbana reads flood more often as there is less infiltration of water due to it being concrete
-snowmelt——>sufcase runoff that results from melting snow——> snowmelt flows over the
land and in the rivers ——-> increases the amount of water in the river and the river might
overflow its banks
-so tmr surge——>a sudden rise of sea level in which water is piled up against a coastline
beyond the normal high-tide conditions.
——>during a storm, strong winds push water towards the coast and create huge waves, giving
rise to a storm surge
-storm surge and heavy rain lead to increased risk of flooding——>surge happens when sea
levels rise dramatically during a storm, sending a destructive wall of water gushing over people
and properly on land. Storm surge is not the result of rainfall or flooding, rather it happens when
powerful winds push ocean water rushing towards land
-failure of human-made structure
Impact of floods
●​ Social impacts
-injuries, spread of diseases, loss of lives ——>people may sustain injuries from debris or
collapse of buildings /structures; lives may be lost due to drowning or falling debris;people might
get diseases from consumption of contaminated water; wounds can get infected from coming
into contact with contaminated water;hypothermia from being in water for too long;floodwaters
still——>mosquito-borne diseases can spread
risk to health and safety:pollution——>floods will wash chemicals, trash and sewage into
water——>contaminated water will spread quickly over an area——>Trash will be left exposed
when floodwaters subside

-homelessness(loss of property)—->flooded, people may have to move out until flood damage is
repaired; possessions can be damaged and washed way
-damage to property(leading to homelessness)——>as flood waters rise, they can flow into
low-lying properties——>River will be carrying huge amounts of pollution that will destroy floors,
walls and any electrical gear
-disruption to clean water supply——>floodwater often contaminated with sewage, can lead to
illness and affect clean drinking water;wells get contaminated; pipes that transport water are
damaged due to flood
●​ Economic impacts
-damage to machinery and equipment——>machinery equipments not built to withstand
exposure to large amounts of water for long durations——>will eventually break
down——>Require large amounts of money to fix them
-damage to transport infrastructure——>during flood, transport in fracture might be submerged
or damaged——>Require large sum of money and long time to repair——>people might not be
able to get to work, resulting in loss of income; might hinder rescue efforts as emergency
vehicles might not be able to get to requested areas
-disruption of energy supply——>power lines may be damaged during a flood;power outages
occur due to lack of electricity——>Facotires and companies unable to operate——>people
unable to work, leading to loss of income

Geography fieldwork
steps for geographical fieldwork
1.​ Framing G1
2.​ Collecting data
3.​ analyzing and presenting data
4.​ drawing conclusions
5.​ reflecting and taking action

Sustainable development——>Devleopment that meets needs of present without

compromising ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable
development requires meeting essential needs of all, in particular the essential needs of
the poor, and extending to all the opportunity to fulfil their aspirations for a better life.
The concept of sustainable development implies limits including limitations imposed by
the present state of technology on environmental resources and by the ability of the
biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities.

Crafting survey questions

●​ Research methods
1.​ Read research questions
2.​ carefully—->what are the objectives? What kind of information do one need in order to
answer the question
3.​ craft the questions (open-ended or close? How many?)
4.​ conduct pilot test, refined questions
5.​ considerations: length(reasonable number, 6 to 8), layout(need profiling, start with
closeted questions, end with open-ended questions), language(make sure it's as simple
and clear as possible;if there is a need for difficult terms, may need to explain to
respondents)
-primary research (by oneself or someone one hires)——>specific to one's needs and one can
control the quality; usually costs more and takes longer than secondary research
-secondary research(By someone else)—->usually cheap and quick, but data can be too old
and/or not specific enough for ones need
-both can be qualitative or quantitatives
-close question——>advantages:easily coded and aggregated; disadvantages: difficult
interpretations of questions(respondent cannot clarify immediately with researcher), limited
range of possible responses
-avoid leading questions, avoid complex questions, avoid avoid irritating questions, avoid
double-barreled questions, avoid ambiguous questions, avoid too many open-ended questions,
avoid sensitive questions
-survey should only contain relevant questions
-surgery should have a test run and then revised
●​ Methods of sampling
-sampling is a shortcut method for investigating a whole population.
-it’s collecting information from a small group from within the large population
-sample data is used to draw conclusions about whole population(as such, sample must not be
too small)
1.​ Random sampling—->randomly selected people from the population
2.​ systematic sampling——>Refers to collecting data at regular intervals
3.​ convenient sampling——>anyhow, biases
4.​ stratified sampling——>creating subgroups, and then randomly sample the subgroups
using another probability sampling method

random sampling systematic sampling

advantage ensure every member of the ensure that the populations ill
pollution has an equal chance be evenly sampled
of being selected

disadvantage may produce might inadvertently pick up

unrepresentative results in some underlying regularity
sample size is small and miss out on possible
irregularities

Data presentation and data analysis

-annotated diagrams
-line graph——>over a period of time——>good for sum arising relationship between two pieces
of information and how they depend on each other; allow finding of trends; useful as it can be
easily extended(some line graphs might be possible to continue the line to show what might
happen in the future)
bar graph——>discrete data——>used to compare data——>good for plotting data based on
quantities; very easy to see and compare frequencies/ quantities of each item(does not work
very well for displaying data over time(compared to line graph))
-pie chart——>percentage ——>angle and area of each segment is proportional to quantity
represented——>good to use when want to show proportion of each segment that make up the
whole(hence often used for showing proportion of items that make up 100%)——>however, if
angles are similar, can be difficult to compare relative sizes of slices (often label percentages,
values of each item); become cluttered as more categories are added and do not show change
over time well
-data analysis is importnat——>involves seeking patterns relationships and connections in
data——>can synthesize one’s observations into coherent explanations
——>need to describe patterns and relationships in set of data, and then analyze by adding on
plausible explanations to account for patterns and relationships

Answering techniques
1:describe how
[Link] why
[Link]——>similairtiy and differences
using figure question——>use data from figure (only)
with reference to figure——>use data from figure——>use other information