Introduction to Electronics Engineering (23CECE15) MODULE 3

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

An embedded system is an electronic/electro-mechanical system, a combination of both

hardware and software (firmware) designed to perform a specific function.

Example: Aircraft control system, washing Machine, Smart phone .

GENERAL COMPUTING SYSTEMS VS EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

GENERAL COMPUTING SYSTEMS EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Combination of generic hardware and a Combination of special purpose hardware

general-purpose operating system. and an embedded operating system.
Executes variety of applications. Executes specific set of applications.
Contains general-purpose operating system May or may not contain an operating system
(GPOS) for functioning.
Upgrading and altering of programs can be For upgrading and altering of programs you
done by the end user. have to go to the manufacturer.
Performance is the deciding factor for the Application-specific requirements like
selection of system. performance, power requirements, memory
usage etc are the deciding factor for the
selection of system.
Response requirement are not time critical. Response requirement are highly time
critical.
Need not to be deterministic in execution Execution behaviour is deterministic.
behaviour.

CLASSIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Embedded systems are classified based on different criteria like
(1) Based on generation
(2) Complexity and performance requirements
(3) Based on deterministic behaviour
(4) Based on triggering.

(1) Classification based on Generation

The classification of embedded systems is based on the generation in which they are
evolved from its initial version to the latest version.

(i) First Generation: The earlier first-generation embedded systems were built
around 8-bit microprocessors and 4-bit microcontrollers. Such embedded
system possesses simple hardware and firmware developed using assembly
code.
Example: Digital telephone keypads, stepper motor control units

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(ii) Second Generation: After the evolution of the second-generation embedded

systems, the 8-bit processor and 4-bit controllers are replaced by 16-bit
microprocessors and 8-bit microcontrollers. They are more powerful and
complex compared to previous generation processors.

Examples: Data acquisition systems, SCADA systems

(iii) Third Generation: During this period, domain-specific processors/controllers

like Digital Signal Processors (DSP), Application-Specific Integrated Circuits
(ASICs) and the concept of instruction pipelining, embedded real-time
operating system evolved into the embedded system industry.

The embedded system of this period has powerful 32-bit microprocessors and
16-bit microcontrollers. Hence, its operation has become much more powerful
and complex than the second generation.

Robotics, industrial process control, embedded networking are examples of the

third-generation embedded system.

(iv) Fourth Generation: The recent development of microprocessors and

microcontrollers has evolved during these modern days. New concepts like
System-on-Chip(SOC), reconfigurable processors, multicore processors,
coprocessors also emerged into the embedded market to add more powerful
performance in the embedded system.

These systems also make use of the high-performance real-time operating

system for their operation. Smart devices, digital cameras, etc are examples of
fourth-generation embedded systems.

(2) Based on complexity

The embedded systems are classified into three types based on the complexity of the systems.

(i) Small Scale Embedded Systems: Small Scale Embedded Systems are built with a
single 8 or 16-bit microprocessor or controller. The main programming tools used
are an editor, assembler, cross assembler and integrated development environment
(IDE). The hardware and software complexities in small-scale embedded system
are very low. It may or may not contain an operating system for its functioning. An
electronic toy is an example for a small-scale embedded system.

(ii) Medium Scale Embedded Systems: The Embedded system with medium
performance 16-bit or 32-bit microprocessor or controller, ASICs or DSPs fall
under the medium scale embedded systems. They have both hardware and software

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complexities. The main programming tools used are C, C++, JAVA, Visual C++,
RTOS, debugger, source code engineering tool, simulator and IDE.

(iii) Large scale Embedded Systems: The embedded systems have highly complex
hardware and software, built around 32-bit or 64-bit processors/controllers, RISC
processors, SoC, scalable and configurable processors. They are also called
sophisticated embedded systems.

They are used for cutting-edge applications that need hardware and software Co-
design, where components have to be assembled into the final system. They also
contain a high-performance real-time operating system for task scheduling,
prioritization and management.

(3) Based on deterministic behavior: It is applicable for Real Time systems. The
application/task execution behavior for an embedded system can be either deterministic or
non-deterministic
These are classified in to two types
(i) Soft Real time Systems: Missing a deadline may not be critical and can be tolerated to
a certain degree

(ii) Hard Real time systems: Missing a program/task execution time deadline can have
catastrophic consequences (financial, human loss of life, etc.)

(4) Classification Based on Triggering:

These are classified into two types

(i) Event Triggered: Activities within the system (e.g., task run-times) are dynamic
and depend upon occurrence of different events.

(ii) Time triggered: Activities within the system follow a statically computed schedule (i.e.,
they are allocated time slots during which they can take place) and thus by nature are
predictable.

MAJOR APPLICATION AREAS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

The following table gives the various applications of embedded systems.

EMBEDDED APPLICATION
SYSTEM
Home Appliances Dishwasher, washing machine, microwave, security system, DVD etc.
Office Automation Fax, copy machine, smart phone system, modern scanner, printers.
Security Face recognition, finger recognition, eye recognition, building
security system, airport security system, alarm system.

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Academia Smart board, smart room, calculator

Instrumentation Signal generator, signal processor, power supplier.
Telecommunication cellular phone, web camera.
Automobile Fuel injection controller, anti-locking brake system, air-bag system,
GPS.
Entertainment video games
Aerospace Navigation system, automatic landing system.
Industrial data collection system, monitoring systems on pressure, voltage,
automation current, temperature.
Personal iPhone, palmtop.
Medical CT scanner, ECG, EEG, MRI, Glucose monitor, blood pressure
monitor.
Banking & Finance ATM.
Miscellaneous: Elevators, tread mill, smart card, security door etc.

ELEMENTS OF AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM

An embedded system is a combination of 3 things, Hardware, Software and Mechanical
Components and it is supposed to do one specific task only. Diagrammatically an embedded
system can be represented as follows:

Fig(): Elements of an embedded systems

System Core: A typical embedded system contains a single chip controller which acts as the
master brain of the system.

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Embedded systems are basically designed to regulate a physical variable (such Microwave
Oven) or to manipulate the state of some devices by sending some signals to the actuators or
devices connected to the output port system (such as temperature in Air Conditioner), in
response to the input signal provided by the end users or sensors which are connected to the
input ports.
Input and Output Ports: Keyboards, push button, switches, etc. are examples of common
user interface input devices (sensors) and LEDs, LCDs, Piezoelectric buzzers, etc examples for
common user interface output devices (actuators) for a typical embedded system.
Memory: The memory of the system is responsible for holding the code (control algorithm
and other important configuration details.
There are two types of memories
(i) Random Access Memory (RAM): It is a temporary memory and can be changed
as per the user requirements. Various types of RAM are SRAM, DRAM etc.
(ii) Read Only Memory (ROM): Fixed memory (ROM) is used for storing code or
program. The user cannot change the firmware in this type of memory. The most
common types of ROM are PROM, EEPROM and FLASH.
Communication Interface: It is used for communicating with various subsystems of the
embedded system with the external world. Some of the communicating interface units are
UART, Infrared, Bluetooth, WIFI etc.

THE CORE OF THE EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

The core of the embedded system falls into any one of the following categories.
➢ General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors

• Microprocessors

• Microcontrollers

• Digital Signal Processors

➢ Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)
➢ Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
➢ Commercial off the shelf Components (COTS).

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Microprocessors
Computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU) built on a single Integrated Circuit (IC) is called a
microprocessor. A digital computer with one microprocessor which acts as a CPU is called
microcomputer.
It is a programmable, multipurpose, clock -driven, register-based electronic device that reads binary
instructions from a storage device called memory, accepts binary data as input and processes data
according to those instructions and provides results as output. The microprocessor contains millions
of tiny components like transistors, registers, and diodes that work together.
A microprocessor consists of an ALU, control unit and register array. Where ALU performs
arithmetic and logical operations on the data received from an input device or memory. Control unit
controls the instructions and flow of data within the computer. And, register array consists of registers
identified by letters like B, C, D, E, H, L, and accumulator.

Block Diagram of a microcomputer

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Microcontrollers
A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains a CPU, scratch pad RAM, special and
general-purpose register arrays, on chip ROM/FLASH memory for program storage, timer and
interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports on a single chip (IC). Texas Instrument’s TMS 1000
Is considered as the world’s first microcontroller. Some embedded system application requires only
8-bit controllers whereas some requiring superior performance and computational needs demand
16/32-bit controllers.

Digital Signal Processors (DSP)

➢ Digital Signal Processors (DSP) take real-world signals like voice, audio, video, temperature,
pressure, or position that have been digitized and then mathematically manipulate them.
➢ A DSP is designed for performing mathematical functions like "add", "subtract","multiply"
and "divide" very quickly.
➢ Signals need to be processed so that the information that they contain can be displayed,
analysed, or converted to another type of signal that may be of use.
➢ In the real-world, analog products detect signals such as sound, light, temperature or pressure
and manipulate them.
➢ Converters such as an Analog-to-Digital converter then take the real-world signal and turn it
into the digital format of 1's and 0's. From here, the DSP takes over by capturing the digitized
information and processing it.
➢ It then feeds the digitized information back for use in the real world. It does this in one of two
ways, either digitally or in an analog format by going through a Digital to-Analog converter.
All of this occurs at very high speeds.
➢ What's Inside a DSP?
A DSP contains these key components:
● Program Memory: Stores the programs the DSP will use to process data
● Data Memory: Stores the information to be processed
● Compute Engine: Performs the math processing, accessing the program from
the Program Memory and the data from the Data Memory
● Input/Output: Serves a range of functions to connect to the outside world
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Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)

➢ Logic devices provides specific functions, including device to device interfacing, data
communication, signal processing, data display, timing & control operations, and almost
every other unction a system must perform. There are two types in this.
➢ Fixed logic devices are permanent they perform one function or set of functions once
manufactured, they cannot be changed.
➢ Programmable Logic devices offer customers a wide range of logic capacity, features, speed,
and voltage characteristics and these devices can be re-configured to perform any number of
functions at any time
Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
➢ Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) is a microchip designed to perform a
specific or unique application.
➢ It is used as replacement to conventional general purpose logic chips.
➢ It integrates several functions into a single chip and thereby reduces the system development
cost.
Commercial off the shelf Components (COTS)
➢ A Commercial off the Shelf product is one which is used 'as-is'. The COTS components itself
may be develop around a general purpose or domain specific processor or an ASICs or a
PLDs.
➢ The major advantage of using COTS is that they are readily available in the market, are chip
and a developer can cut down his/her development time to a great extent
➢ The major drawback of using COTS components in embedded design is that the manufacturer
of the COTS component may withdraw the product or discontinue the production of the
COTS at any time if rapid change in technology occurs.

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MICROPROCESSOR VS MICROCONTROLLER

MICROPROCESSOR MICROCONTROLLER
A silicon chip representing a Central A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip
Processing Unit (CPU), which is capable of that contains a CPU, scratch pad RAM,
performing arithmetic as well as logical Special and General-purpose Register Arrays,
operations according to a pre-defined set of On Chip ROM/FLASH memory for program
Instructions. storage, Timer and Interrupt control units and
dedicated I/O ports.
It is a dependent unit. It requires the It is a self-contained unit and it doesn’t require
combination of other chips like Timers, external Interrupt Controller, Timer, UART
Program and data memory chips, Interrupt etc for its functioning.
controllers etc for functioning.
Most of the time general purpose in design Mostly application oriented or domain
and operation specific.
Doesn’t contains a built in I/O port. The I/O Most of the processors contain multiple built-
Port functionality needs to be implemented in I/O ports which can be operated as a single
with the help of external Programmable 8 or 16- or 32-bit Port or as individual port
Peripheral Interface Chips like 8255. Pins
Targeted for high end market where Targeted for embedded market where
performance is important performance is not so critical (At present this
demarcation is invalid)
Limited power saving options compared to Includes lot of power saving features
microcontrollers

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) V/S CISC (Complex Instruction Set
Computer) PROCESSORS/CONTROLLERS.

RISC CISC
Lesser no. of instructions More no. of Instructions
Instruction Pipelining and increased execution Generally, no instruction pipelining feature
speed
Orthogonal Instruction Set (Allows each Non-Orthogonal Instruction Set (All
instruction to operate on any register and use instructions are not allowed to operate on any
any addressing mode) register and use any addressing mode. It is
instruction specific)
Operations are performed on registers only; the Operations are performed on registers or
only memory operations are load and store. memory depending on the instruction.

Large number of registers are available Limited no. of general-purpose registers

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Programmer needs to write more code to A programmer can achieve the desired
execute a task since the instructions are simpler functionality with a single instruction which in
ones. turn provides the effect of using more simpler
single instructions in RISC
Single, Fixed length Instructions Variable length Instructions
Less Silicon usage More silicon usage
With Harvard Architecture Can be Harvard or Von-Neumann Architecture

HARVARD V/S VON-NEUMANN PROCESSOR/CONTROLLER ARCHITECTURE

HARVARD ARCHITECTURE VON-NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE

Separate buses for Instruction and Data Single shared bus for Instruction and Data
fetching fetching
Easier to Pipeline, so high performance can Low performance Compared to Harvard
be achieved Architecture
Comparatively high cost Cheaper
No memory alignment problems Allows self-modifying codes
Since data memory and program memory Since data memory and program memory are
are stored physically in different locations, stored physically in same chip, chances for
no chances for accidental corruption of accidental corruption of program memory
program memory.

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TRANSDUCERS

• Transducers are devices that convert energy in the form of sound, light, heat, etc., into an
equivalent electrical signal, or vice versa.
• A loudspeaker is a transducer that converts low-frequency electric current into audible
sounds. A microphone, on the other hand, is a transducer that performs the reverse function,
i.e., that of converting sound pressure variations into voltage or current.
• Loudspeakers and microphones can thus be considered as complementary transducers.
Transducers may be used both as inputs and outputs. Loudspeaker is an output transducer
(actuator) and microphone are an input transducer( Sensor).

SENSORS

• A sensor is a special kind of transducer that is used to generate an input signal to a

measurement, instrumentation or control system.( Sensors acts as input device).
• The signal produced by a sensor is an electrical analogy of a physical quantity, such as
distance, velocity, acceleration, temperature, pressure, light level, etc.
• Sensors can be categorized as either active or passive. An active sensor generates a current
or voltage output. A passive transducer requires a source of current or voltage and it
modifies this in some way (e.g. by virtue of a change in the sensor’s resistance).
• Sensors can also be classed as either digital or analogue. The output of a digital sensor can
exist in only two discrete states, either ‘on’ or ‘off’, ‘low’ or ‘high’, ‘logic 1’ or ‘logic 0’,
etc. The output of an analogue sensor can take any one of an infinite number of voltage or
current levels. It is thus said to be continuously variable.
• Eg. Hall Effect Sensor which measures the distance between the cushion and magnet
in the Smart Running shoes from adidas
• Example: IR, humidity , PIR(passive infra red) , ultrasonic , piezoelectric , smoke
sensors.

Example:
Physical quantity: sound
Input transducer: Microphone

Diaphragm attached to a coil is suspended in a magnetic field.

Movement of the diaphragm causes current to be induced in the coil.

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Example :
Physical quantity: Temperature
Input transducer (Sensor): Thermocouple

Small e.m.f (mV) generated at the junction between two

dissimilar metals (e.g. copper & constantan). Requires
reference junction (cold) and compensated cables for
accurate measurement.

ACTUATOR:

• A form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical) which converts signals to

corresponding physical action (motion). Actuator acts as an output device
• Eg. Micro motor actuator which adjusts the position of the cushioning element in the
Smart Running shoes from adidas.

Example

Physical Quantity: Sound (pressure

change)
Output transducer: Loudspeaker

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Diaphragm attached to a coil is suspended in a magnetic

field. Current in the coil causes movement of the
diaphragm which alternately compresses and rarefies
the air mass in front of it.

Sensor Actuator
It converts physical quantity into electrical It converts electrical signals into physical
signals. quantity.
It takes input from environment. It takes input from the electric or electronic
system.
Sensor generates electrical signals. Actuator generates heat, motion, vibration,etc.

It is placed at input port of the system. It is placed at output port of the system.

It is used to measure the physical quantity. It is used to measure the continuous and
discrete process parameters.
It gives information to the system about It accepts command from the system to
environment. perform a function.
Example: Photo-voltaic cell which converts Example: Stepper motor where electrical
light energy into electrical energy. energy drives the motor.

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Applications of Sensors

Sensors find usage in various industries like Automotive, Manufacturing, Aviation, Medical and
Health care, Marine, Agriculture, etc.

1. Automotive
Here are some of the automotive applications of sensors given below:
• Braking and Traction control: Antilock Braking System (ABS) Sensors connected to the
wheel, measures the speed of the wheel and braking pressure and keeps sending them to ABS
controlling When the driver applies the sudden brake, ABS system, with breaking pressure and
speed data received from the sensors, releases the braking pressure to avoid skidding/locking
of wheels. It is one of the critical safety aspects of vehicles.
• Air Bags – Anti Cushion Restraint System (ACRS): Crush sensors and accelerometers placed
in the vehicle measures the force and sends it to During accidents on sensing the force exceeds
the limit, ACRS will activate the Airbag and save the life of passengers.
• Avoiding Collisions: Proximity sensors in the front, back, and sides of the vehicle forewarn
the driver of a possible Infrared, Video assistance, Ultrasonic technologies assist drivers while
parking their vehicles.
• Comfort and Convenience: Many sensors provide inputs and warnings to drivers on Vehicle
Speed, Engine Speed, Fuel level, Tire pressure, Door/deck, light bulbs for driving comfort and
convenience.
• Engine Data: Sensors provides so much data on Engine performance, such as Ignition, b.
Combustion, c. Exhaust gas oxygen, d. Fuel mix, e. Exhaust gas recycling, f. Transmission
control etc.,

2. Manufacturing
Here are some of the manufacturing applications of sensors given below:
• Predictive maintenance of the machinery, Assembly equipment using the data collected from
sensors in the machines.
• Optimal utilization of Machines by continuously monitoring the performances and effectively
rejigging the operations with the data collected from sensors.
• Fine-tuning the Quality systems and enhance the quality standards using the data collected
from sensors. Design notifications and alerts in case of a deterioration of quality and process
standards.
• Agility in reacting to market demands.

3. Aviation
Sensors deployed in the aviation industry measures the data during navigation of aircraft, monitoring
various systems, and controlling instruments. These data are utilized inefficient flight operations,
improve aircraft performance and design improvements.
Some of the instrumentation sensors are tachometers, gauges to measure engine pressure and oil& fuel
quantity, Altimeters, airspeed meters, etc. Sensors help measure the testing of the ground conditions,
vibration and environment factors and provide useful inputs to the pilot to manage the general
operation and emergency conditions.

4. Medical & Healthcare

Signals generated by Sensors in Medical equipment, surgical instruments and devices are used for
diagnosis, treatment, and control functions by doctors.
Some of the applications are:
➢ Blood pressure monitoring (self).
➢ Continuous glucose monitoring by Individuals.
➢ Automatic measurement of vitals of the patient and sending it to the patient’s doctor.
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➢ More home care facilities and ambulatory treatments.

➢ Automatic detection of visitors spreading the disease to patients in hospitals.
➢ Decentralized laboratories.
➢ Robotics in Operation Theater.

5. Marine
➢ Sensors in ship measures fuel tank levels, liquid cargo levels, tank pressure/temperature.
➢ Pitch, roll, speed and other vessel moments are also measured and monitored with sensors’
help.
➢ There are a lot of sensors in Engines measuring typical attributes of internal combustion
parameters.

6. Agriculture
➢ sensors can accurately monitor environmental factors such as temperature, moisture, and
humidity. Some sensors can assess soil quality by determining nitrate levels and water content.
➢ Plant disease and insect pests can be detected using high resolution camera coupled with GPRS
system.
➢ UAV based surveillance helps monitor crop growth and farm land topology. Crop production
can be estimated by automated mass flow sensors.

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