Overview Overview

Spread Spectrum Signals for Digital Communication

1 Model of Spread Spectrum Digital Communication System

2 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Signals
3 Frequency-Hopped Spread Spectrum Signals
4 CDMA
5 Time-hopping SS
6 Synchronization of SS systems

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 Generation of Pseudo Noise codes Generation of Pseudo Noise codes

Generation of Pseudo Noise codes

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 Generation of Pseudo Noise codes Generation of Pseudo Noise codes

Spread Spectrum Modulation (SSM) Background

Used in military for the past 50 years
Its commercial use started in 1980
Frequency Hopping: Invented in 1940 by Hedy Lamarr

Figure: Hedy Lamarr and George Antheil [1]

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 Generation of Pseudo Noise codes Generation of Pseudo Noise codes

Figure: Hedy Lamarr invention details [2]

Spread spectrum modulation was originally developed for military to be used in the battle ground and in
the hostile territories where the enemy always tries to intrude into the communication system of the
friendly forces to steal information and to jam the systems.
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 Generation of Pseudo Noise codes Generation of Pseudo Noise codes

Definition: Spread spectrum is a means of transmission in which the signal

occupies a bandwidth in excess of the minimum necessary to send the information:
the band spread is accomplished by means of a code which is independent of the
data, and synchronized reception with the code at the receiver is used for
de-spreading and subsequent data recovery.
Applications and advantages of spread spectrum systems
Low density power spectra for signal (To avoid being detected.)
To prevent eavesdropping.
To prevent the jamming of signals.
Improved interference rejection
CDMA applications
Secure communication
High resolution ranging
Antijam capability
Increased capacity and spectral efficiency in some mobile-cellular pesonal
communication system applications
Lower cost of implementation
Readily available IC components
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 Generation of Pseudo Noise codes Generation of Pseudo Noise codes

A type of modulation in which the modulated signal bandwidth is much

greater than the message signal bandwidth.
The spreading of the message signal spectrum is done by a spreading code
called Pseudo Noise Code (PN Code) which is independent of the message
signal.

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 Generation of Pseudo Noise codes Types of Spread Spectrum

Types of Spread Spectrum

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS/SS)
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FH/SS)
1 Slow Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
2 Fast Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
Time Hopping Spread Spectrum (TH/SS)
Hybrid spread spectrum methods

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 Spreading Codes Spreading Codes

Spreading Codes
Maximal length sequences
Good auto and cross correlation, small code set
Gold codes and Kasami sequences
Are derived from M-sequences with similar correlation properties, and a larger
code set.
Walsh and Hadamard sequences
zero correlation between codes when aligned cross-correlation non-zero when
time shifted fixed spreading factor (codes of different length are not
orthogonal)

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 Spreading Codes Spreading Codes

Pseudo Noise (PN) Sequence

x1 x2 x3
Output
Flip-Flop Flip-Flop Flip-Flop Sequence

x1

Modulo 2 adder

100, 110, 111, 011 101, 010, 001, 100,

0011101
N = 2m − 1

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 Spreading Codes Spreading Codes

A pseudo noise (PN) sequence is defined as a coded sequence of 1s and 0s with a certain
autocorrelation properties.
The class of sequence used in spread spectrum communication is usually periodic.
The major tasks of PN sequences are:
1 Spreading the bandwidth of the modulated signal to the larger bandwidth.

2 Distinguishing between the different user signals utilizing the same transmission bandwidth.

The maximum length sequence is a type of cyclic code represents a commonly used PN sequence.

x1 x2 x3
Output
Flip-Flop Flip-Flop Flip-Flop Sequence

x1

Modulo 2 adder

Consider the initial state of the shift register is 100 (i.e, x1=1, x2=0 and x3=0).
Then, the succession of state will be as follows: 100, 110, 111, 011,101, 010, 001, 100
The output of the sequence (the last position of each of the shift register) is therefore 0011101. The
choice of initial state 100 is an arbitrary one.
Any of the other six states could serve equally well as an initial state.

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 Spreading Codes Spreading Codes

1 Property 1: Balance Property

In each period of a maximum-length sequence, the number of 1s is always one more than the number of
0s.
2 Property2: Run Property
Among the runs of 1s and of 0s in each period of maximum-length sequence, one-half the runs of each
kind are of length one, one-fourth are of length two, one-eighth are of length three, and so on as long as
these fractions represent meaningful numbers of runs
3 Property3: Autocorrelation property
The autocorrelation function of a maximum-length sequence is periodic and binary valued.
Property3: Autocorrelation property
It is a measure of similarity between a signal f (t) and τ second time-shifted replica of itself.
The autocorrelation function is plot of autocorrelation over all shifts (−t) of the signal.
Autocorrelation Ra (τ ) in general is defined as:

Z∞
Ra (τ ) = f (t)f (t − τ )dt
−∞

The autocorrelation function of a maximum length sequence is periodic and binary valued. This property is
called as correlation property.

L−1
1X
Rc (τ ) = Ci ∗ C(i+τ ) mod L τ = 0, 1, . . . L − 1
L i=0

If symbol1 and 0 are represented by +1 volt and -1 volt then autocorrelation has only two values.
1 for τ = kL k = 0, 1, 2, ...
Rc (τ ) =
− L1 for τ 6= kL k = 0, 1, 2, ...
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 Spreading Codes Spreading Codes

x1 x2 x3 x4

Flip- Flip- Flip- Flip-

Flop Flop Flop Flop Output
Sequence

Modulo-2
adder

1000, 0100, 0010, 1001, 1100, 0110, 1011, 0101, 1010, 1101, 1110, 1111,
0111, 0011, 0001, 1000,
000100110101111
N = 2m − 1
000100110101111

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 Spreading Codes Spreading Codes

0011101 =⇒ C0 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C0 C1 C5 =-1 C2 C3 C4 C6 =1
1
C02 + C12 + C22 + C32 + C42 + C52 + C62 = 1


Rc (0) =
7
1 1
Rc (1) = (C0 .C6 + C1 .C0 + C2 .C1 + C3 .C2 + C4 .C3 + C5 .C4 + C6 .C5 ) = −
7 7
1 1
= (−1.1 + −1. − 1 + 1. − 1 + 1.1 + 1.1 + −1.1 + 1. − 1) = −
7 7
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1

Tc NTc

Rc(t)

Tc Tc

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 Spreading Codes Gold codes

Gold codes
Combining two m-sequences creates Gold codes.
Gold sequences are an important class of sequences that allow construction of
long sequences with three valued Auto Correlation Function ACFs.
Gold sequences are constructed from pairs of preferred m-sequences by
modulo-2 addition of two maximal sequences of the same length.
Gold sequences are in useful in non-orthogonal (asynchronous) CDMA.
The use of Gold sequences permits the transmission to be asynchronous.
The receiver can synchronize using the auto-correlation property of the Gold
sequence.

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 Notion of spread spectrum Notion of spread spectrum

Notion of spread spectrum

b(t) m(t)
b(t) m(t)
b(t) m(t)

m(t) = c(t)b(t)
c(t) c(t)
c(t)
m(t) r(t)
m(t) r(t)
m(t) r(t)
r (t) = m(t) + i(t) = c(t)b(t) + i(t)
i(t)
i(t)
i(t)
z(t)
r(t)
Baseband
LPF z(t) = c(t)r (t) = c 2 (t)b(t)+c(t)i(t)
z(t)
Baseband
r(t) z(t) LPF c 2 (t) = 1
Baseband
r(t) LPF
c(t)
z(t) = b(t) + c(t)i(t)

c(t)
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(JNNCE) Spread Spectrum Signals for Digital Communication December 15, 2015 17 / 70
 Notion of spread spectrum Notion of spread spectrum

Data b(t)

Tb

Spreading Code c(t)

NTc

0 0 1 1 1 0 1
Product Signal m(t)

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 Direct Sequence Spread Binary PSK Direct Sequence Spread Binary PSK

Direct Sequence Spread Binary PSK

Binary
2 P cos( w0t + θ (t ))
Data Phase
modulator
2 P c(t ) cos( w0t + θ (t ))

Binary
2 P cos( w0t + θ (t ))
Data Phase
modulator c(t )
2 P cos( w0t ) 2 P c(t ) cos( w0t + θ (t ))

Figure: DSS Transmitter

c(t )
2 P cos( w0t )

2 Pc(t − Td ) cos( w0 t + θ (t − Td )) + i(t )

2 Pc(t − Td ) cos( w0 t + θ (t − Td )) + i(t )
Estimated
Estimated
Band pass Band pass Phase data
data
Phase
filter filter demodulator
demodulator

Despreading
c(t − Td )
Despreading Mixer 2 P cos(w0t )
c(t − Td ) Mixer 2 P cos(w0t )

Figure: DSS Receiver

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 Direct Sequence Spread Binary PSK Direct Sequence Spread Binary PSK

Figure: (a) m(t)=c(t).b(t) (b)Carrier (c) DS-BPSK signal

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 Direct Sequence Spread Binary PSK Direct Sequence Spread Binary PSK

Figure: Bandwidth

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 Direct sequence spread spectrum signals Direct sequence spread spectrum signals

Direct sequence spread spectrum signals

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 Direct sequence spread spectrum signals Direct sequence spread spectrum signals

PN Mod-2 Balanced
Generator adder Modulator

cos ( 2π f ct ) QPSK
Data signal
Local
Encoder Adder
oscillator
sin ( 2π f ct )

PN Mod-2 Balanced
Generator adder Modulator

Figure: Direct sequence spread spectrum QPSK modulator

The message bits are modulo-2 added by PN sequence and if

bi is the ith bit of the PN sequence and ci is the corresponding
bit from the encoder, the modulo-2 sum is

ai = bi ⊕ ci

From this, ai = 0 when bi = ci and ai = 1 when bi 6= ci .

The sequence ai is mapped into a binary PSK signal of the
form s(t) = ±Re[g (t)e j2πfc t ] as follows:

g (t − iTc ) (ai = 0)
gi (t) =
−g (t − iTc ) (ai = 1)

j2πfc t ±jx
s(t) = ±Re[g (t)e ] [e = cosx ± jsinx] Figure: Illustrates the spreading process
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 Direct sequence spread spectrum signals Direct sequence spread spectrum signals

Consider an information rate to the encoder is R bits/s and the available

channel bandwidth is W Hz.
The reciprocal of the R denoted by Tb , i.e., Tb = 1/R defines the duration of
a pulse corresponding to the transmission time of an information bit.
The PN code is at a rate of W times/s. The reciprocal of the W denoted by
Tc , defines the duration of a pulse, which is called chip, Tc is called chip
interval.
The bandwidth expansion factor W /R may be expressed as

W Tb
Be = = (1)
R Tc
In practical system the ratio Tb /Tc is an integer,

Tb
Le = (2)
Tc
which is the number of chips per information bit.

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

CDMA

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

CDMA

Forward
Link

Reverse
Link

Mobile Station Base Station

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) CDMA

Initially adopted in North America, Proposed by Qualcomm, standardized as IS-95 by

Telecommunication Industry Association (TIA) for use in 800 MHz and 1900 MHz freq bands
Base station to Mobile (Forward (Down)link ) and mobile to BS (Reverse (UP) link) channel bandwidth
is of 1.25 M Hz.
Both forward and reverse links are DS spread having a chip rate of 1.2288X 106 chips per second.

Forward Link
CELP coder generates a variable data rate of 9600, 4800, 2400, and 1200 bits/s, (based speech activity)
in the frame of 20 ms.
Data is encoded by a rate of 1/2, constraint length K=9 convolutional encoder.
For lower speech activity 4800, 2400, or 1200 bits/s the output symbols from the convolutional encoder
are repeated either twice, four times, or eight times so as to maintain a constant bit rate of 9600 bits/s.
Block interleaver is used to overcome the effects of burst errors that may occur during the transmission
through the channel.
Scrambler is used for Data Encryption to make call more secure.
Scrambler will randomizes data and prevents the transition of a long series of 1’s or 0’s
Block interleaver data rate of 19.2 kbps are scrambled by multiplication with long code with chip rate of
1.2288 M chips/s and is decimated by factor of 64 to 19.2 kchips/s.
The long code is used to identify a call of a MS on the forward and reverse links.
Hadmard or Walsh code sequence of length 64 is assigned to each channel.
64 orthogonal sequences are assigned to each BS (64 Channels), One channel is used to transmit pilot
signal, which is used measure the channel characteristics (includes signal strength and the carrier phase
offset).
Another channel is used to provide time synchronization. one channel for paging activity.
Remaining 61 channels for user.

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) CDMA

Figure: Block diagram of IS-95 forward link

Each user data is multiplied by Hadmard sequence, the resulting sequence is spread by two PN
sequences one in-phase and other in quadrature phase of length N = 215 .
Different BS are identified by different offsets of these PN sequences.

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Reverse Link

Reverse Link

Figure: Block diagram of IS-95 reverse link

Orthogonal Modulation
6 bit block of data is mapped into 64 Hadamard seq => (64/6) ∗ 28.8 = 307.8
64-ary orthogonal modulation using the same Walsh function in the forward link
Contrary to the forward link, used for orthogonal data modulation
One Walsh function is transmitted for six coded bits
Modulated symbol rate: 28.8kbps ∗ 64chips/6codedbits = 307.2kcps
Increase interference tolerance
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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Processing Gain and Jamming Margin

Processing Gain and Jamming Margin: Some Basic Relations:

Information rate (Data rate) is R bits/s ∴ Bit duration Tb = 1/R
PN code generator data rate is W times/s ∴ Chip duration Tc = 1/W
Signal energy per bit Eb = Pav Tb = Pav /R
The average jamming power (Jav )is Jav = J0 W where J0 PSD of jamming signal ∴ J0 = Jav /W
 
Eb Pav /R W /R PS /R W /R
= = = =
J0 Jav /W Jav /Pav PI /W PI /PS
Pav /Jav is the jamming to signal power ratio which is greater than unity, Jav /Pav is jamming margin.
The ratio W /R = Tb /Tc = Be = Lc is the bandwidth expansion factor or number of chips per info bit
is called processing gain.
Rc dmin is the coding gain and all these are related by:
(SNR)dB = (W /R)dB + (Rc dmin )dB − (Jav /Pav )dB

Probability of error for binary signaling system is

s  s !
2Eb 2W /R
P2 = Q  =Q
J0 Jav /Pav
s 
1 Eb
Pe = erfc   and erfc(u) = 1 − erf (u)
2 N0

If there are Nu simultaneous users then the desired signal-to-nose interference ratio at a given receiver is
(Pav = PS Jav = PN )
PS PS 1
= =
PN (Nu − 1)PS Nu − 1

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Processing Gain and Jamming Margin

Complementary Error Function Table

x erfc(x) x erfc(x) x erfc(x) x erfc(x) x erfc(x) x erfc(x) x erfc(x)
0 1.000000 0.5 0.479500 1 0.157299 1.5 0.033895 2 0.004678 2.5 0.000407 3 0.00002209
0.01 0.988717 0.51 0.470756 1.01 0.153190 1.51 0.032723 2.01 0.004475 2.51 0.000386 3.01 0.00002074
0.02 0.977435 0.52 0.462101 1.02 0.149162 1.52 0.031587 2.02 0.004281 2.52 0.000365 3.02 0.00001947
0.03 0.966159 0.53 0.453536 1.03 0.145216 1.53 0.030484 2.03 0.004094 2.53 0.000346 3.03 0.00001827
0.04 0.954889 0.54 0.445061 1.04 0.141350 1.54 0.029414 2.04 0.003914 2.54 0.000328 3.04 0.00001714
0.05 0.943628 0.55 0.436677 1.05 0.137564 1.55 0.028377 2.05 0.003742 2.55 0.000311 3.05 0.00001608
0.06 0.932378 0.56 0.428384 1.06 0.133856 1.56 0.027372 2.06 0.003577 2.56 0.000294 3.06 0.00001508
0.07 0.921142 0.57 0.420184 1.07 0.130227 1.57 0.026397 2.07 0.003418 2.57 0.000278 3.07 0.00001414
0.08 0.909922 0.58 0.412077 1.08 0.126674 1.58 0.025453 2.08 0.003266 2.58 0.000264 3.08 0.00001326
0.09 0.898719 0.59 0.404064 1.09 0.123197 1.59 0.024538 2.09 0.003120 2.59 0.000249 3.09 0.00001243
0.1 0.887537 0.6 0.396144 1.1 0.119795 1.6 0.023652 2.1 0.002979 2.6 0.000236 3.1 0.00001165
0.11 0.876377 0.61 0.388319 1.11 0.116467 1.61 0.022793 2.11 0.002845 2.61 0.000223 3.11 0.00001092
0.12 0.865242 0.62 0.380589 1.12 0.113212 1.62 0.021962 2.12 0.002716 2.62 0.000211 3.12 0.00001023
0.13 0.854133 0.63 0.372954 1.13 0.110029 1.63 0.021157 2.13 0.002593 2.63 0.000200 3.13 0.00000958
0.14 0.843053 0.64 0.365414 1.14 0.106918 1.64 0.020378 2.14 0.002475 2.64 0.000189 3.14 0.00000897
0.15 0.832004 0.65 0.357971 1.15 0.103876 1.65 0.019624 2.15 0.002361 2.65 0.000178 3.15 0.00000840
0.16 0.820988 0.66 0.350623 1.16 0.100904 1.66 0.018895 2.16 0.002253 2.66 0.000169 3.16 0.00000786
0.17 0.810008 0.67 0.343372 1.17 0.098000 1.67 0.018190 2.17 0.002149 2.67 0.000159 3.17 0.00000736
0.18 0.799064 0.68 0.336218 1.18 0.095163 1.68 0.017507 2.18 0.002049 2.68 0.000151 3.18 0.00000689
0.19 0.788160 0.69 0.329160 1.19 0.092392 1.69 0.016847 2.19 0.001954 2.69 0.000142 3.19 0.00000644
0.2 0.777297 0.7 0.322199 1.2 0.089686 1.7 0.016210 2.2 0.001863 2.7 0.000134 3.2 0.00000603
0.21 0.766478 0.71 0.315335 1.21 0.087045 1.71 0.015593 2.21 0.001776 2.71 0.000127 3.21 0.00000564
0.22 0.755704 0.72 0.308567 1.22 0.084466 1.72 0.014997 2.22 0.001692 2.72 0.000120 3.22 0.00000527
0.23 0.744977 0.73 0.301896 1.23 0.081950 1.73 0.014422 2.23 0.001612 2.73 0.000113 3.23 0.00000493
0.24 0.734300 0.74 0.295322 1.24 0.079495 1.74 0.013865 2.24 0.001536 2.74 0.000107 3.24 0.00000460
0.25 0.723674 0.75 0.288845 1.25 0.077100 1.75 0.013328 2.25 0.001463 2.75 0.000101 3.25 0.00000430
0.26 0.713100 0.76 0.282463 1.26 0.074764 1.76 0.012810 2.26 0.001393 2.76 0.000095 3.26 0.00000402
0.27 0.702582 0.77 0.276179 1.27 0.072486 1.77 0.012309 2.27 0.001326 2.77 0.000090 3.27 0.00000376
0.28 0.692120 0.78 0.269990 1.28 0.070266 1.78 0.011826 2.28 0.001262 2.78 0.000084 3.28 0.00000351
0.29 0.681717 0.79 0.263897 1.29 0.068101 1.79 0.011359 2.29 0.001201 2.79 0.000080 3.29 0.00000328
0.3 0.671373 0.8 0.257899 1.3 0.065992 1.8 0.010909 2.3 0.001143 2.8 0.000075 3.3 0.00000306
0.31 0.661092 0.81 0.251997 1.31 0.063937 1.81 0.010475 2.31 0.001088 2.81 0.000071 3.31 0.00000285
0.32 0.650874 0.82 0.246189 1.32 0.061935 1.82 0.010057 2.32 0.001034 2.82 0.000067 3.32 0.00000266
0.33 0.640721 0.83 0.240476 1.33 0.059985 1.83 0.009653 2.33 0.000984 2.83 0.000063 3.33 0.00000249
0.34 0.630635 0.84 0.234857 1.34 0.058086 1.84 0.009264 2.34 0.000935 2.84 0.000059 3.34 0.00000232
0.35 0.620618 0.85 0.229332 1.35 0.056238 1.85 0.008889 2.35 0.000889 2.85 0.000056 3.35 0.00000216
0.36 0.610670 0.86 0.223900 1.36 0.054439 1.86 0.008528 2.36 0.000845 2.86 0.000052 3.36 0.00000202
0.37 0.600794 0.87 0.218560 1.37 0.052688 1.87 0.008179 2.37 0.000803 2.87 0.000049 3.37 0.00000188
0.38 0.590991 0.88 0.213313 1.38 0.050984 1.88 0.007844 2.38 0.000763 2.88 0.000046 3.38 0.00000175
0.39 0.581261 0.89 0.208157 1.39 0.049327 1.89 0.007521 2.39 0.000725 2.89 0.000044 3.39 0.00000163
0.4 0.571608 0.9 0.203092 1.4 0.047715 1.9 0.007210 2.4 0.000689 2.9 0.000041 3.4 0.00000152
0.41 0.562031 0.91 0.198117 1.41 0.046148 1.91 0.006910 2.41 0.000654 2.91 0.000039 3.41 0.00000142
0.42 0.552532 0.92 0.193232 1.42 0.044624 1.92 0.006622 2.42 0.000621 2.92 0.000036 3.42 0.00000132
0.43 0.543113 0.93 0.188437 1.43 0.043143 1.93 0.006344 2.43 0.000589 2.93 0.000034 3.43 0.00000123
0.44 0.533775 0.94 0.183729 1.44 0.041703 1.94 0.006077 2.44 0.000559 2.94 0.000032 3.44 0.00000115
0.45 0.524518 0.95 0.179109 1.45 0.040305 1.95 0.005821 2.45 0.000531 2.95 0.000030 3.45 0.00000107
0.46 0.515345 0.96 0.174576 1.46 0.038946 1.96 0.005574 2.46 0.000503 2.96 0.000028 3.46 0.00000099
0.47 0.506255 0.97 0.170130 1.47 0.037627 1.97 0.005336 2.47 0.000477 2.97 0.000027 3.47 0.00000092
0.48 0.497250 0.98 0.165769 1.48 0.036346 1.98 0.005108 2.48 0.000453 2.98 0.000025 3.48 0.00000086
0.49 0.488332 0.99 0.161492 1.49 0.035102 1.99 0.004889 2.49 0.000429 2.99 0.000024 3.49 0.00000080

Figure: Block diagram of IS-95 reverse link

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Processing Gain and Jamming Margin

Table I. Values of Erf(x) and Erfc(x)

(for positive values of x)
Value x Erf (x) Erfc(x)
0 0 1
0.05 0.0563720 0.9436280
0.1 0.1124629 0.8875371
0.15 0.1679960 0.8320040
0.2 0.2227026 0.7772974
0.25 0.2763264 0.7236736
0.3 0.3286268 0.6713732
0.35 0.3793821 0.6206179
0.4 0.4283924 0.5716076
0.45 0.4754817 0.5245183
0.5 0.5204999 0.4795001
0.55 0.5633234 0.4366766
0.6 0.6038561 0.3961439
0.65 0.6420293 0.3579707
0.7 0.6778012 0.3221988
0.75 0.7111556 0.2888444
0.8 0.7421010 0.2578990
0.85 0.7706681 0.2293319
0.9 0.7969082 0.2030918
0.95 0.8208908 0.1791092
1 0.8427008 0.1572992
1.1 0.8802051 0.1197949
1.2 0.9103140 0.0896860
1.3 0.9340079 0.0659921
1.4 0.9522851 0.0477149
1.5 0.9661051 0.0338949
1.6 0.9763484 0.0236516
1.7 0.9837905 0.0162095
1.8 0.9890905 0.0109095
1.9 0.9927904 0.0072096
2 0.9953223 0.0046777
2.1 0.9970205 0.0029795
2.2 0.9981372 0.0018628
2.3 0.9988568 0.0011432
2.4 0.9993115 0.0006885
2.5 0.9995930 0.0004070
2.6 0.9997640 0.0002360
2.7 0.9998657 0.0001343
2.8 0.9999250 0.0000750
2.9 0.9999589 0.0000411
3 0.9999779 0.0000221
3.1 0.9999884 0.0000116
3.2 0.9999940 0.0000060
3.3 0.9999969 0.0000031
3.4 0.9999985 0.0000015
3.5 0.9999993 0.0000007

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Problems

13.5 A rate of 1/2 convolutional code with dmin = 10 is used to encode a data sequence occuring at
a rate of 1000 bits/s. The modulation is binary PSK. The DS spread spectrum sequence has a chip rate
of 10 MHz
a) Determine the coding gain
b) Determine the processing gain
c) Determine the Jamming margin assuming an Eb /J0 = 10
Solution:
a) The Coding gain is

Rc dmin = 1/2 ∗ 10 = 5 = 10log (5) = 6.989 db

b) The processing gain is W /R

W 107 3 3
= = 5 ∗ 10 = 10log (5 ∗ 10 ) = 37 db
R 2 ∗ 103

c) The Jamming margin is

Pav (W /R)(Rc dmin )
= db
Jav (Eb /J0 )

Pav
= (W /R)dB + (CGdB ) − (Eb /J0 )dB
Jav
= 37 + 7 − 10 = 34dB

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Problems

13.6 A total of 30 equal-power users are to share a common communication channel by CDMA. Each
user transmits information at a rate of 10 kbps via DS spread spectrum and binary PSK. Determine the
minimum chip rate in order to obtain a bit-error probability of 10−5 . Additive noise at the receiver may
be ignored in this computation.
Solution: s  s 
−5 1 Eb Eb
Pe = 10 = erfc   ∴ erfc   = 2 ∗ 10−5
2 N0 N0

−5
erf (u) = 1 − erfc(u) = 1 − 2 ∗ 10 = 0.99998
p
From the error function table u = Eb /N0 = 3.0 for a value of 0.99998
s
Eb
u= ' 3.0 ∴ Eb /N0 = 9
N0

To achieve an error probability of 10−5 , the required Eb /J0 = 10 Then, by using the relation in and we have

W /R W /R Eb Eb
= = ∴ W /R = (Nu − 1)
PN /PS Nu − 1 J0 J0

Eb
W =R (Nu − 1)
J0

R = 104 bps, Nu = 30 and Eb /J0 = 10

4 6
W = 10 ∗ 10 (30 − 1) = 2.9 ∗ 10 Hz
6
The minimum chip rate is 1/Tc = W = 2.9 ∗ 10 chips/sec
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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Problems

13.7 A CDMA system is designed based on DS spread spectrum with a processing gain of 1000 and binary
PSK modulation. Determine the number of users, if each user has equal power and the desired level of
performance is an error probability of 10−6 . Repeat the computation if the processing gain is changed to 500.
Solution: s  s 
−6 1 Eb −6 Eb
Pe = 10 = erfc   i.e., 2 ∗ 10 = erfc  
2 N0 N0

−6
erfc(u) = 2 ∗ 10

From the complementary error function table u = Eb /N0 ' 3.36 for a value of 2 ∗ 10−6
p
∴ Eb /N0 = 11.3
Then, the number of users of the CDMA system is

W /Rb
Nu = +1
Eb /J0

W /Rb 1000
Nu = + 1 = Nu = + 1 = 89 users
Eb /J0 11.3

If the processing gain is reduced to W /Rb = 500,then

500
Nu = + 1 = 45 users
11.3

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Problems

13.8 A DS spread-spectrum system transmits at a rate of 1000 bps in the presence of tone interference. The
interference power is 20 dB greater than the desired signal and the required to achieve satisfactory
performance is 10 dB.
a Determine the spreading bandwidth required to meet the specifications.
b In the case of pulse interference, determine the pulse duty cycle that results in worst-case
performance and the corresponding probability of error.
Solution:
a (PJ /PS )dB = 20dB R = 1000 bps and (Eb /J0 )dB = 10dB
     
W PJ Eb
= + = 30dB
R db PS db J0 db
W
= 1000
R
6
W = 1000R = 1000 ∗ 1000 = 10 Hz

b The duty cycle of pulse jammer for worst - case jamming is

0.7 0.7
α= = = 0.07
Eb /J0 10

The corresponding probability of error for this works case jamming is

0.082 0.082 −3
P2 = = = 8.2 ∗ 10
Eb /J0 10

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Problems

13.9 CDMA system consists of 15 equal power users that transmit information at a rate of 10,000 bits/s, each
using a DS spread spectrum signal operating at a chip rate of 1 MHz. The modulation is binary PSK.
a) Determine the Eb /Jo where Jo is the spectral density of the combined interference.
b) What is processing gain?
c) How much should the processing gain be increased to allow for doubling the number of users without
affecting the output SNR?
Solution:
a) We have Nu = 15 users transmitting at a rate of 10, 000 bps each, in a bandwidth of W = 1 MHz
The Eb /J0 is
Eb W /R 106 /104 100
= = = = 7.14(8.54dB)
J0 Nu − 1 14 14

b) Processing gain PG = W
R
c 1Mbps
= 100
b 10Kbps
c) With Nu = 30 and Eb /J0 = 7.14, the processing gain should be increased to

W /R = (7.14)(29) = 207

Hence, the bandwidth must be increased to W = 2.07MHz

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Problems

13.14 An m=10 ML shift register is used to generate the pseudorandom sequence in a DS SS. The chip
duration is Tc = 1microsec and the bit duration is Tb = NTc where N is the length of the m sequences
1 Determine the processing gain of the system in dB
2 Determine the jamming margin if the required E − b/J0 = 10 and the jammer is tone jammer with an
average power Jav
Solution:
1 The period of the maximum length shift register sequence is

10
N =2 − 1 = 1023

Since Tb = NTc , then the processing gain is

Tb
N = 1023(30dB)
Tc

2 According to jamming margin is

Jav W Eb
= −
Pav dB R dB J0 dB
= 30-10 = 20dB
where Jav = J0 W ≈ J0 /Tc = J0 ∗ 106

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 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Problems

13.15 An FH binary orthogonal FSK system employs a m = 15 stage linear feedback shift register that
generates a maximal length sequence. Each state of the shift register selects one of N nonoverlapping
frequency bands in the hopping pattern. The bit rate is 100 bits/sec and the hop rate is once/bit. The
demodulator employs noncoherent detection.
1 Determine the hopping bandwidth for this channel.
2 What is the processing gain?
3 What is the probability of error in the presence of AWGN?
Solution:
1 The length of the shift-register sequence is

m 15
L=2 −1=2 − 1 = 32767 bits

For binary FSK modulation, the minimum frequency separation is 2/T, where 1/T is the symbol (bit)
rate. The hop rate is 100 hops/ sec. Since the shift register has N = 32767 states and each state
utilizes a bandwidth of 2/T = 200 Hz, then the total bandwidth for the FH signal is 6.5534 MHz.
2 The processing gain is W/R. We have,

W 6.5534 ∗ 106 4
= = 6.5534 × 10 bps
R 100

3 If the noise is AWG with power spectral density N0, the probability of error expression
s  s !
Eb W /R
P2 = Q  =Q
N0 PN /PS

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 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation

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 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation

BW = Wd BW = Ws
The type of spread spectrum in which
Binary
carrier hops randomly from one frequency Data Data
High
to another is called Frequency Hop (FH)BW = W BW = Ws
pass
d modulator
filter
spread spectrum. Binary
Data High
Data
pass
modulator
Frequencies are shifted for every Tc filter
Frequency
seconds. 2 P cos(w0t ) synthesizer
Frequency
Duration of signal element is Tb seconds.2P cos(w t ) synthesizer
0

FH/SS are of two types: FH code Code

clock gnerator
1 Slow Frequency Hopping (SFH): FH code Code
clock gnerator
2 Fast Frequency Hopping (FFH):

Figure: Transmitter

BW = Wd
BW = Wd Estimated
BW = Ws
BW = Ws Estimated
Band pass data Phase data
Band pass Phase
filter filter
demodulator demodulator

2 P cos( w0t ) 2 P cos( w0t )

Frequency Frequency
synthesizer
synthesizer

FH code
clock FH code
Code
gnerator
clock
Code
gnerator

Figure: Receiver

Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) Spread Spectrum Signals for Digital Communication December 15, 2015 50 / 70
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation

Slow Frequency Hopping (SFH):

In slow frequency hopping the symbol rate of the input signal is an integer multiple of the frequency
hopping rate.
That is several symbols are transmitted on each frequency hop.
Slow FHSS has Tc ≥ Tb

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 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation

Slow Frequency Hopping (SFH):

Number of bits per MFSK symbol = 2 ⇒ M = 4
Rs = Rb/2 Rc = max(Rh, Rs) = Rs
Length of PN segment per hop = 3 Total number of frequency hops = 23 = 8

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 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation

Slow Frequency Hopping (SFH):

Number of bits per MFSK symbol = 2 ⇒ M = 4
Rs = Rb/2 Rc = max(Rh, Rs) = Rs
Length of PN segment per hop = 3 Total number of frequency hops = 23 = 8

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 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation

Fast Frequency Hopping (FFH):

In fast frequency hopping the frequency hopping rate is an integer multiple of the input symbol rate.
That is the carrier frequency will change or hop several times during the transmission of the one symbol.
Fast FHSS has Tc < Tb.

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 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation

Fast Frequency Hopping (FFH):

Number of bits per MFSK symbol = 2 ⇒ M = 4
Rs = Rb/2 Rc = max(Rh, Rs) = Rh
Length of PN segment per hop = 3 Total number of frequency hops = 23 = 8

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 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation

Output
Information FSK FSK
Encoder Mexer Channel Mexer Decoder
sequence modulator demodulator

Time
PN sync
Frequency Frequency
sequence
synthesizer synthesizer
generator

PN
sequence
generator

Figure: Block diagram of FH spread spectrum system

The initial modulation is usually binary or M-ary FSK.

FSK signal is translated by random frequency which is synthesized by frequency synthesizer from PN
codes.
Synthesized frequency is mixed with the output of the modulator.
The m bits from the PN generater will generate 2m − 1 frequencies.
At the receiver an identical PN generator will generate m bits and these m bits will be used synthesize
corresponding 2m − 1 frequencies.

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