KIBOSHO GIRLS’ SECONDARY SCHOOL

GEOGRAPHY DEPARTMENT
FORM THREE HOME PACKAGE NOTES
GEOGRAPHY
TOPIC
1: STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

a) The concept of the structure of the earth

– Earth is the planet on which we live, the world Earth is the planet third in order from the sun,
having an equatorial diameter of 7926 miles (12,755 km) and a polar diameter of 7900 miles
(12,714 km), a mean distance from the sun of 92.9 million miles (149.6 million km), and a
period of revolution of 365.26 days, and having one satellite. The earth is the land surface on
which we live and move about.

Earth

Structure of Earth
–The shape of the earth is an oblate spheroid, because it is slightly flattened at the poles and
bulging at the equator. The earth is a system which is composed of outer and inner
zones. The outer zones of the earth include the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the
barysphere. The inner zones of the earth include the crust, mantle and the core.

The Structure of the Earth showing Inner Zone and Outer Zone

CONCENTRIC ZONE OF THE EARTH

The inner zones of the earth constitute the internal
structure of the earth. The inner zone / internal structure of the earth
consists of three zones or layers which are:
1. Crust
2. Mantle
[Link]

The boundaries between these layers were discovered

by seismographs which showed the way vibrations bounced off
the layers during earthquakes. Between the Earth’s crust and the
mantle is a boundary called the moho. It was the first discovery
of a major change in the Earth’s structure as one goes deeper.
1. CRUST
Is the outermost and thinnest zone of the earth which
found between 8 – 50 km or 5 – 30 miles. It is known as Lithospere, It is
largely composed of igneous rocks. Other types of rocks also exist as a
result of changes on the earth’s surface. The rocks are crystalline, hard and
[Link] of being brittle they tend to break when subjected to stress
or forces especially the compressional forces. The crust also consist of two
layers are sial and sima layers.
a) Sial
Is the outer layer of the crust which rich in silica and
Aluminium minerals. The sial for the basis of the continent. The presence of
silica and aluminium minerals collectively form SIAL layer.
a) Sima
Is the layer which found beneath the [Link] is the
inner layer of the crust which separated from sial layer by the zone called
Conrad discontinuity line. The sima layer is composed by silica and
magnesium. Itforms the basis of ocean floor.
Note: Sial and sima layer together forms the crust.
2. MANTLE
Mesosphere or mantle which found between the crust and
core. It lies beneath the crust. It separated from the crust by the zone of
separation called Mohorovic discontinuity or moho. It extends downward to
about2900 km (1800 miles) where the temperatures may reach about
5000 c. It consists of pale green minerals called Olivine (Ferromagnesium
0

silicate) in form of ultra basic rock. It consists of lower and upper mantle.
The upper mantle is rigid and crust to form a large layer called lithosphere.

The lower mantle is less rigid and forms the moltern

layer within the earth’s interior called asthenosphere.
Asthenosphere is the molten layer layer which responsible for the
balancing movement of the earth’s material called isostatic readjustment.
Asthenosphere has been investigated is found between 100 to 200 km
below the upper surface.
3. CORE
The core is the innermost zone of the internal structure
of the earth. It is also called barysphere or centrosphere. It has diameter of
about 6900 km (4300 miles) density of about. The core is also classified
intotwo parts i.e. the outer and inner core. It separated from the mantle by
zone of separation called Gutenberg discontinuity.
1. The Outer Core
It is liquid in nature due to high temperature of up to
3700 c, and consist of nickel and iron (NIFE) . It is estimated to
0

be 2100 km with density of about 10.5 gms/cc.

2. The Inner Core is thought to be solid in nature
because of high pressure exerted from different parts toward the center – It
composed mainly by iron. It has diameter of about 2600 – 2700km. (1600 –
1700
miles)
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
External structure of the earth consists of four main layers.
These are Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere / Land mass Biosphere,
1. THE ATMOSPHERE
Is the thin layer of gases held on the earth by
gravitation’ attraction. It composed by abiotic (nonliving matter) and biotic
living organism. Non-living matter found in the atmosphere includes mixture
of gases, water vapor and dust particles. The living organism include the
smallest or microscopic organisms like bacteria
COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
Atmosphere is the outer zone or external structure of the
earth composed by Abiotic and Biotic components.
1. Abiotic Components of Atmosphere. The abiotic
components of the atmosphere include the following. Mixture of various
gases These include Nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.009%) and
carbon dioxide (0.03%). Other gases include neon, helium, Krypton, xenon
and other which are present in minute (small proportion) percentage. Water
vapor is the colourless and
odorless (smell less) gas in the form of water which makes up a perfect
mixture with other gases. The degree to which water vapor is present in the
atmosphere is called humidity. Humidity is very important to weather as
condensed to form clouds and fog. Excess water vapor brings about
precipitation in form of rain, hail, snow and sleet. Water vapor is capable of
absorbing heat which penetrates
into the atmosphere in the form of radiant energy from the sun to the earth.
It is also act as a blanket which prevents the rapid escape of heat from the
earth’s surface and therefore maintain heat budget. Dust particles.
The Dust Particles may Exposed to the Atmosphere
Naturally or Artificially
a) Natural dust particles are those caused by natural
phenomena like winds and volcanic eruptions.
b) Artificial dust particles are those derived from
industrial pollutions such as soot and ashes. It includes the particles
caused by other man’s activities like construction, mining and farming
activities.
The function of dust particles serves as a nuclear or
centre around which water vapor
condenses to produce clouds.
2. Biota components of atmosphere includes
bacteria etc
STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE
According to the temperature changes, atmosphere divided
into two zones. These are Homosphere and Heterosphere
HOMOSPHERE
Homosphere is the layer which found between 0 – 80km
above the sea level. This is the lowest part of the atmosphere which
composed of uniform composition gas of uniform composition of gases and
temperature. Hemisphere consists of three layers, namely:
i) Troposphere
This layer extends by 0 – 15km above the sea level. Troposphere
is the first layer of hemisphere located nearest to the earth. It contains
water vapor, gases and dust particles. It is the layer of atmosphere which
support life on the earth due to the presence of plenty oxygen gas. All
processes of rainfall formation take place in this layer and the temperature
decreases as the altitude increases at the rate of per every 100 meters or
per every 1000 meters.
Note: This situation where by temperature decreases as
altitude increases are called lapse rate and because it occurs near to the
ground is called environmental Lapse rate. The upper limit of Troposphere
which separates it to the next later is called Tropopause. Tropopause
makes the upper limit of troposphere to the next layer called stratosphere.
ii) Stratosphere
Stratosphere exists between 15 – 48 km above the sea
level. This is the second layer of homosphere which lies above the
tropopause. It is also composed of water vapor, dust particles and various
gases. It is the layer of atmosphere which characterized by high
concentration of Ozonic [Link] gases form Ozone layer which found
particularly at 20 –35 km in the stratosphere.
The Ozonosphere or ozone layer is the layer which form a
shield or cover that prevent the earth’s surface from destroying by the sun
rays. It prevents the direct incoming of harmful rays from the sun to fall
direct on the earth’s surface. The temperature remains unchanged about
between 20 – 35km from the earth’s surface. Then temperature increases
with height to about at the upper limit of stratosphere called stratopause.
The increase in temperature with height is referred to as temperature
invasion.
iii) Mesosphere
This layer extends between 48-80 kilometers above the sea
level. Mesosphere is the third part of the homosphere where temperature
decreases as the altitude increases. It separated from the stratosphere by
the zone of separation called stratopause. The upper limit of mesosphere is
called mesopause. Mesopause record minimum temperature of this zone
that may fall to making this zone to be coldest. It is at this zone where
strong upper air streams of wind like jet streams are experienced.
HETEROSPHERE
Is the second layer of atmosphere which extends from 80km
towards the interplanetary space. Heterosphere divided into two layers
which include Thermosphere and Exosphere
i) Thermosphere
Is the lower part of heterosphere where temperature increases as the
altitude increases from i.e. temperature invasion. This is because there is
no water vapor or dust particle in this zoneIonosphere consists of some
ions which influence radio waves. This is because, ionosphere is
electrically charged with free electrons that allow the passage of radio
waves, television waves and telephone or mobile phone waves

ii) Exosphere
Is the part of heterosphere which found above thethermosphere. It has high
temperature through it has little significance as it has not been greatly
[Link]: Within the heterosphere, there is also a
scientificsignificant layer called ionosphere. Ionosphere consists of some
ions which influence radio waves. This is because, ionosphere is
electrically charged with free electrons that allow the passage of radio
waves, television waves and telephone or mobile phone waves.
Function of Atmosphere
1. Insulation Atmosphere is an insulator; it acts as a shield or blanket and
therefore regulates temperature during the night and during the winter.
2. Filtration. The atmosphere is the filter, it filters solar insulation and
percent ultra violet rays of certain length due to the presence of ozone layer
in the stratosphere.
3. Scientific function. Atmosphere is the scientific field; it is the field through
which the scientific experiments and observation carried out. Example
ionosphere layer of atmosphere reflects some electromagnetic waves and
ration signals back to the earth.
4. It supports much on hydrological cycle. The surface water, evaporation,
condensation and precipitation formation take place in the atmosphere.
5. It support life some gases particularly oxygen is important
for living organisms. Air has weight which contributes to the occurrence of
atmospheric pressure variations without which breathing would be
impossible. Wind movement and direction that balances
temperature,humidity and precipitation also result from pressure variations.
2. THE HYDROSPHERE
Is the layer of water bodies of the earth including all oceans, rivers,
precipitation and underground water. It is estimated that 75% of the Earth’s
surface is covered by water bodies.
3. THE LITHOSPHERE / LAND MASS
Is the whole solid body of the earth with various landforms such
asmountains, valleys and plateaus. The lithosphere is also known as the
crust. It includes all land masses. The major land mass is called continent
and the minor land mass is called islands.
4. THE BIOSPHERE
Biosphere is the complex zone which comprises all living things. It includes
a lower level of atmosphere and the upper level of lithosphere and
hydrosphere. Biosphere receives substantial supply of energy from the sun
which gives it condition necessary for life and does not occur in
any part of the solar system. The living organisms that inhibit biosphere
interact with each other and their environment. The sum of all these
interaction components is called the ecological system or ecosystem.
Biosphere comprises all living organism both macro and micro organisms
living in water bodies, soils and on air.
MATERIALS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST
The earth’s crust is composed of different materials
ranging from elements, minerals and rocks. These materials differ in their
physical and chemical composition.
Elements
They refer to the smallest particles of matter which can
not be split into different forms by any means. Examples of elements are
magnesium,
potassium, sodium, iron, aluminium and silicon.
Minerals
They are naturally occurring substances which have definite shape, colour
and resistance formed due to combination of different
elements. They are formed as a result of the combination of two or more
elements. Some single elements like gold, silver and diamond may occur
as
minerals. Mineral Element Quartz Silicon and oxygen Feldspar Potassium,
sodium,
calcium and aluminium
ROCK OF THE EARTH’S CRUST
A rock is an aggregate of minerals in a solid state. On
the other hand the term rock can include substances like clays, shells,
sandstones and corals. Rocks which contain metallic compounds are called
ores.
Types of Rocks on the Earth’s Crust
Rocks of the Earth’s crust can be classified according to
their mode of formation and chemical composition. According to the mode
of
formation rocks can be classified as classified as igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic.
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS
Are rocks that formed when molten rock cools and
solidifies within or outside the earth’s crust. The origin of igneous rocks is
inside the earth where they are under great pressure. Igneous rocks do not
occur in layers and they don‘t contain fossils. Igneous rocks solidify either
within the earth ‘s crust and form intrusive features or outside the earth ‘s
surface and form extrusive features.
Igneous rocks are formed when the molten magma is forced
out from the upper mantle to the earth ‘s surface, where it cools and
solidifies due to low temperature. Crystals form on cooling and the rocks
are called crystalline rocks. There are two main types of igneous rocks:
1. Plutonic: these have solidified deep in the crust and
they are seen on the surface only after being exposed by prolonged
erosion.
2. Volcanic: these have been poured on the earth ‘s
surface where they are called lavas.
Characteristics of Igneous Rocks
1. Igneous rocks reflect light.
2. They are not found in layers.
3. They do not contain fossils.
4. They are crystalline rocks.
5. They are formed through cooling and solidification of
magma.
6. They can undergo metamorphic and weathering processes.
7. They contain different minerals like iron, magnesium
etc.
In Tanzania igneous rocks are found in Dodoma, Iringa and
in the shores of Lake Victoria (Mwanza). The main examples are granite,
gabbro,
basalt and diorite. Some are found in Kilimanjaro and Rungwe (Mbeya)
such as
basalt, pumice, diorite, gabbro, syenite and peridotite rocks.
Granite
Basalt rocks
2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks are rocks formed through weathering
processes when sediments are accumulated, compacted and cemented
together. The
sediments are compacted by compression to form sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks
are found in layers; they contain fossils and are very soft. These are
weathered particles formed through deposition and lithification processes
Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks
1. They are formed when particles or sediments are
accumulated, compacted and cemented together.
2. They contain fossils.
3. They are found in layers (strata).
4. They do not reflect light.
5. They are non-crystalline rocks.
6. They can undergo metamorphic process.
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
1. Mechanically-Formed Sedimentary Rocks. These
are formed through weathering process. When weathering agents erode
and deposit
rock particles, they are accumulated, compacted and cemented together to
form
sedimentary rocks. Examples of mechanically formed sedimentary rocks
are clays,
gravels and alluviums (all deposited by water), moraines, boulder clay and
gravels (deposited by ice) and loess (deposited by wind); sandstones and
shale.
Sandstone
Shale: Shale occurs in a wide range of colours that include: red, brown,
green, grey, and black.

2. Chemically-Formed Sedimentary Rocks. These are

formed through chemical precipitation process. They include carbonate (as
it is
in stalactite and stalagmite), sulphate, chloride, etc. The main examples are
gypsum, rock salt, lignite, dolomite, flint, borax, limonite, haematite, etc.
3. Organically-Formed Sedimentary Rocks. These are
formed through mineralization process of decaying and decomposition of
dead
organisms such as animals and plants. The remains of living organisms are
accumulated, compacted and cemented together to form these
sedimentary rocks. The
main examples are chalk (limestone) and coral (formed from animals), and
peat, coal and lignite (formed from plants).
Lignite rocks Limestone
Chalk
Coal
Coral rocks
3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
These are rocks which have changed from one type of rock
to another due to the contact of heat, pressure or both. This process is
referred to as metamorphism. Any rock can be changed into a
metamorphic rock.
Examples of metamorphic rocks are slate, marble and granite.

There are Three Kinds of Metamorphism

1. Dynamic metamorphism. This is influenced by pressure
of the earth’s crust. Examples; Shale to Schist, Clay to Slate, Granite to
Gneiss
2. Thermal or contact metamorphism. This is caused by
intense heat. This can take place when the rock comes into contact with
hot
molten material like magma or lava. Examples: Lime stone to Marble, Sand
stone
to Quartzite
3. Thermal dynamic metamorphism This is the process that
takes place as a result of a combination of heat and pressure. It is when
the
existing rocks are subjected to both pressure and heat to change their
shape
and appearance. Example Coal to Graphite
Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks
1. They are very hard due to prolonged action of heat and
pressure.
2. These rocks can change to another to another type of
rocks.
3. They can undergo weathering process.
Slate
Gneiss

ROCK CYCLE
Rock cycle is a relationship in which rocks tend to
change from one type of rock to another. This is the cycle in which rocks
tend
to change from one type to another. For instance, igneous rocks may
change to
metamorphic rocks or sedimentary rocks; sedimentary rocks to
metamorphic or
igneous rocks, etc.
Necessary Conditions for Rock Cycle to Take Place or Process of
Rock Cycle
1. First, the molten rocks erupt from the interior of the
earth and then cool and solidify to form igneous rocks.
2. Secondly, the igneous rocks are subjected to
denudation process to form sedimentary rocks.
3. Third, either igneous or sedimentary rocks undergo
metamorphism, due to prolonged heat and pressure, to form metamorphic
rocks.
4. Fourth, metamorphic or igneous rocks can undergo
weathering process through erosion and transportation of sediments which
are
further deposited in layers in the ocean or lake floors where they are
cemented
and consolidated to form sedimentary rocks and vice versa.
5. Fifth, metamorphic or sedimentary rocks can be
subjected to heat and pressure where melting take place and later cooling,
due
to low temperature, to form igneous rocks.
Simplified Geological Time Scale
The geological time scale is a chart for dating the
history of the earth including rock span. It tries to explain the age of rocks
as far back as 600 million years ago.
The simplified geological time scale
Years in
millions
before Major geological events in Man, and
Era Period present Africa animals

Glaciation of East Africa

mountains. Formation of river
Cenozoic Quaternary 1 terraces and raised beaches. Age of man

Formation of the Atlas

Mountains. Lava flows in Age of
Tertiary 163 Ethiopia. mammals.

Deposition of marine sediments

in the Sahara and Southern
Nigeria. Formation of Enugu Age of
Mesozoic Cretaceous 135 coalfield. reptiles

Break-up of Gondwanaland and

Marine invasion of East Africa
coastlands and separation of
Jurassic 180 Malagasy Island from mainland.

Drakensburg lava and

formation of upper Karro beds.
Triassic 230 Volcanic activity in West Africa.

Formation of lower Karro beds.

Formation of rich coal deposits
in Tanzania and South Africa.
Ice age in central and South Age of
Paleozoic Permian 280 Africa. amphibians

Carboniferous 345 Cape fold formed.

Marine invasion of Libya, the

Sahara and Western Sudan.
Continental basins formed by
Devonian 405 crustal warping

Continental sedimentation in
Zaire basin, Tanzania and
South Africa, followed by
Silurian 425 intensive folding.
 Extensive deposition of
sediments. Formation of
sandstones in Guinea, Mali, Age of
Volta basin and North West marine
Ordovician 500 Ethiopia invertebrates

Marine invasion of Western

Cambrian 600 Sahara and Kalahari basin.

Glaciations of Africa South of

Equator. Extensive
metamorphism of oldest known
Proterozo Pre Cambrian fossilized, unicellular algae
ic or Archarean formed in Swaziland and Mali. Algae

The Importance of Rocks

1. Rocks are very important in the formation of soils
which can be used for agricultural production.
2. Rocks are used for building purposes: some rocks such
as limestone, sandstone, gravels and sand are used for building houses,
construction of roads, etc.
3. Some rocks are used as sources of energy or fuel such
as coal and petroleum (mineral oil).
4. Limestone is widely used for cement manufacturing. In
Tanzania, cement is produced at Tanga, Mbeya and Wazo Hill.
5. Salt extraction: salt usually originate from rock
accruing strata, for instance, in Tunisia and Morocco there are large
deposits
of salt.
6. Manufacture of chemicals: some rocks contain nitrate
or phosphate, while others have potash. This kind of rocks can be used for
making dyes, fertilizers and medicines.
7. Mineral deposits: mineral ores occur in veins of some
rocks such as igneous rocks. The minerals are formed when the magma
coos down.
Valuable minerals extracted from rocks include gold, lead, tin, silver,
diamond, copper, zinc, aluminium, calcium and manganese.
8. Some rocks are so impressive such that they attract
tourist to come and view them. In so doing, the country earns a lot of
foreign
exchange.
9. Some rocks are used for decoration of houses as
ornaments or they are grinded to produce powder which is used for
decoration.