CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY

PROJECT

[Atomic Models]

2025 - 2026

NAME : Gavin Albin

GRADE : 11 A

ROLL NO: 07

SCHOOL : EKYA SCHOOL BTM LAYOUT

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Gavin Albin of class XI/XII of Ekya school, BTM
Layout has completed his project on the topic of Model Making Project
on Different Atomic Models (Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr) under
my guidance during the academic year, 2025-26. The student has taken
proper care and shown utmost sincerity in completing this project. I
certify that this project is up to my expectations and as per the guidelines
issued by the Central Board of Secondary Education.

Internal Examiner: External Examiner:

Date: Date:

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 Acknowledgement

First and foremost, I would like to thank my chemistry teacher, Mr Arpit

Nema, for giving me the opportunity to do this project as well as for providing
me with his constant encouragement, guidance and support. His enthusiastic
interest has helped me complete this project successfully.
Iwould like to thank our co-ordinator Ms Mumtaz Begum for her support and
guidance to complete the project

Iwould also like to thank the principal Ms Asha Doris for providing me with all
the facilities that were required.

Finally, I would like to extend my gratitude to everyone who was directly or

indirectly involved in the successful completion of this project.

[Link]

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 Index

Sl NO Contents Page No
1 Certificate 2

2 Acknowledgement 3

3 Aim 5

4 Introduction 6

5 Theory 7

6 Principle 9
7 Diagram 10

8 Experiment 13

9 Observation 15

10 Precaution 16

11 Conclusion 17

12 Applications 18
13 Bibliography 20

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Aim of the project:

To study and represent the different atomic models proposed by Dalton,

Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr using physical models and understand
how each contributed to the development of modern atomic theory.

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Introduction:
Atoms arethe basicunits of all matter. Throughout history, the atom
concept has developed with increasingly elaborate atomic models from
many different scientists. Each of the models proposed attempts to more
accurately explain the behavior and structure of the atom, supported by
experimental results.

From Dalton's model of the atom as a solid sphere to Bohr's model of

quantized orbits within the atom, the idea of the atom has had some
significant changes that eventually led to quantum mechanics of today.

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Theory

The idea of the atom has changed a lot over the years thanks to past
scientists’ ideas and experimentation. Each model (with the exception of
Dalton’s) is simply a step closer to the atom as we know it today.

Dalton’s Atomic Model (1808)

John Dalton established the first cohesive atomic theory in 1808. He stated
atoms are very small, indivisible, and indestructible particles of all matter. He
suggested that all the atoms that make up a particular element are identical in
size, mass, and other characteristics, while atoms of different elements will
differ in one or more of the same characteristics. He indicated that when
different element atoms chemically combine, they would do so in fixed, simple,
whole-number ratios. Dalton's model forms the basis for understanding
chemical reactions and conservation of matter. Dalton's model could not
account for subatomic particles (electrons, protons, and neutrons) and,
ultimately, the existence of isotopes demonstrating that atoms of the same
element can vary in mass.

Thomson's Atomic Model (1898)

After the electron was discovered, J.J. Thomson proposed a new model of the
atom in 1898. He proposed that the atom was a positively charged sphere of
material with negatively charged electrons embedded in it like raisins in
pudding. This is known as the "plum pudding model." Thomson's model was
important because it was the first to show that atoms are divisible, and they
have smaller charged particles. However, it could not explain the subsequent
experimental observations made by Rutherford about how the positive charge
and mass of the atom were concentrated.

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Rutherford's Atomic Model (1911)
In 1911, Ernest Rutherford advanced the nuclear model of the atom through
his experiment utilizing a thin gold foil. As he documented the scattering of
alpha particles after they struck a thin sheet of gold, he decided that atoms
contained a dense, positively charged nucleus at the center that contained
most of the mass of the atom. Electrons revolved around the nucleus in
circular orbits, while the bulk of the atom was made of empty space. This
model successfully accounted for the existence of the nucleus, but it could not
explain how electrons did not spiral into the nucleus or how an atom could emit
discrete spectrums of light.

Bohr's Atomic Model (1913)

To solve these limitations Niels Bohr proposed the Bohr model in 1913. He
proposed that electrons orbit the nucleus is fixed, quantized orbits or energy
levels, and do not radiate energy while in those orbitals. The only activity that
occurs corresponds to a jump from one energy level to another, and at that
time the electron will absorb or emit an exact amount of energy in the form of
light. Bohr's ideas worked well to describe the line spectrum of Hydrogen and
provided a stable description of the atom. Ultimately, for Bohr's theories were a
substantial step towards quantum theory, it still did not explain the spectra of
multi-electron atoms or the fine structure detected with state of the art
instruments.

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Principle:
All atomic models rest on the premise that properties and behavior of matter
can be explained with how atoms are grouped and arranged. Each model
has been something of an attempt to explain how subatomic particles are
grouped and arranged (ie, electrons, protons, and neutrons) and how these
subatomic structural aspects control and ultimately determine the physical
and chemical properties of an element.
Through experimentation and adjustments to the models, it was decided by
scientists that an atom, was not an indivisible particle as was originally
theorized, but has a compact, central nucleus that has or surrounds it with
electrons or particles arranged in distinct energy levels. These principles were
foundations of modern atomic theory, nuclear science, and quantum
mechanics which link atomic structure concepts, as well as matter behavior
in elements and in compounds.

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 Diagrams:

The model presented depicts atoms as solid, indivisible spheres — like tiny,
indestructible balls that themselves make up matter. Each element consists of a
collection of identical atoms, which differ in size and mass from the atoms of all other
elements. The atom by Dalton is what started the atomic theory of today.

Thomson proposed that the atom is a positively charged sphere with

negatively charged electrons embedded within it, similar to “plums in a
pudding.” This was the first model to include subatomic particles and
showed that atoms are divisible.

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According to Rutherford's model, there is a small, dense, positively charged
nucleus located at the center of the atom and electrons revolve in circular
orbits around the nucleus. The majority of the atom is considered empty
space. This model was able to explain the outcome of the gold foil
experiment and revealed the existence of the nucleus.

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Bohr's model demonstrates orbiting electrons around the nucleus arranged in
fixed quantized energy levels. Electrons could orbit the nucleus without losing
energy, and they could move from one energy level to another by absorbing or
emitting discrete energy amounts. The Bohr model explained the stability of
atoms and the line spectrum of hydrogen.

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Experiment:
Procedure
Materials Required:
•Cathode ray discharge tube

•Power supply (5,000–10,000 V)

•Fluorescent screen (zinc sulfide coating)
•Pair of metal electrodes (cathode and anode)
•Electric and magnetic field setup (deflection study)
•Vacuum pump (for laboratory apparatus)

Construction:
Inside a long glass discharge tube designed for conducting high-voltage
currents, two metallic electrodes are fixed the cathode (negative) and the
anode (positive). The air inside the tube is evacuated to a very low
pressure, leaving only a few gas molecules.
When the electrodes are connected to a high-voltage power source, the
cathode emits invisible rays that travel toward the anode. These rays,
known as cathode rays, cannot be seen directly with the naked eye.

A fluorescent screen coated with zinc sulfide is placed inside the tube to
make the rays visible. When the cathode rays strike the screen, a bright
greenish glow appears, confirming the presence and path of the rays.

When an electric or magnetic field is applied around the tube, the glowing
spot on the screen deflects, showing that the rays are charged particles.

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Detailed studies of this deflection and direction of movement revealed that
the rays are streams of negatively charged particles, which were later
named electrons by J.J. Thomson.

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Observation
●When high voltage is applied, a bright green glow appears on the
fluorescent screen, showing that cathode rays are emitted from the
cathode and travel in straight lines.

● When a magnet is brought near the tube, the glow deflects toward
the positive pole, confirming that the rays are negatively charged.

● The deflection occurs regardless of the gas inside the tube or the
metal used for electrodes, proving that electrons are present in all
atoms.

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Precaution
• The experiment must be performed under the supervision of a teacher.
• High-voltage apparatus should be handled carefully and only by trained
personnel.
• Ensure that the discharge tube is properly evacuated and sealed before
use.
• Avoid looking directly into bright fluorescent spots for long periods.
• Do not touch any part of the apparatus while it is in operation.
• Disconnect the power supply immediately after the demonstration.

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Conclusion
The Cathode Ray Experiment proved that atoms are not indivisible as was
thought. J.J. Thomson's findings showed that there were charged particles in
each atom, negatively charged, now referred to as electrons. His findings
provided the first direct evidence of subatomic structure which contravened
Dalton's solid-sphere model and led to Thomson's Plum Pudding Model.
The experiment helped bring modern atomic theory, demonstrating that matter
contains charged particles smaller than previously accepted, and that matter
was more complicated than chemists had assumed.

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Application of Atomic Models
Thevariousatomic modelshave laid thegroundwork for our
understanding of the composition of matter as well as the behavior of
elements. Each model, although it has been refined over time, has made
significant contributions to science and modern technologies. Examples of
key applications of atomic models include:
1. Dalton's Atomic Model – Foundations of Chemical Reactions and
Stoichiometry

Dalton's atomic model proposed the idea of indivisible atoms that compose
matter, and that a chemical reaction involves the rearrangement of atoms
in fixed ratios.

Application:
Dalton's atomic theory is the basis for chemical formulae, molecular
weights, and stoichiometric calculations in chemistry. Dalton's atomic
explanation helps predict proportions of elements that combine together to
form compounds, which is important in the pharmaceuticals, fertilizers,
materials, and other industries.

2. Thomson’s Atomic Model: Discovery of Electrons and Early

Electronics
Thomson’s “plum pudding model” confirmed that there are particles with
negative charge in the atom.

Application:
With the discovery of the electron, the invention of cathode ray
tubes(CRTs) was eventually formed, leading to modern forms of
entertainment such as television screens, computer monitors (early), and
oscilloscopes. It also began a new study of electric discharge in gases and
modern electronics.

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3. Rutherford’s Atomic Model: Basis of Nuclear Science
Rutherford’snuclearmodelbroughtforwardthenotion that an atom
has a dense, central nucleus determining positive charge and most of the
atom’s mass.

Application:
This is a fundamental concept in nuclear physics and nuclear
science, leading to the development of, among other things, nuclear
energy, radioactive isotopes used in medicine (radiotherapy, diagnostics),
and associated atomic research meant for continuous efforts toward an
improved understanding of the atom's detailed nature, physical, and
chemical interactions. It lays the groundwork for understanding
phenomena such as alpha and beta radiation

4. Bohr’s Atomic Model: Explanation of Spectra and Integrated

Quantum Mechanics
Bohr'smodelprovidedthe idea of quantized electrons orbitingthe nucleus
with a negative charge as an explanation of why atoms would emit or
absorb light at certain wavelengths (or regions of visible light).

Application:
Bohr's theory was foundational in the field of spectroscopy, used to
identify elements in stars and other compounds, and in advancements in
technologies such as laser development, quantum computing, and
development of the branch of physics studying semiconductors and,
ultimately, in modern, integrated quantum mechanics.

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Bibliography

Textbooks:
•NCERTChemistry Textbook for Class XI

Internet Sources:
Wikipedia
Khan Academy

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