MSW-031

SOCIAL WORK
Indira Gandhi INTERVENTION IN
National Open University
School of Social Work
CORRECTIONAL SETTINGS

Block

4
SOCIAL GROUP WORK I
UNIT 1
Social Groups: Characteristics and Significance 5
UNIT 2
Theories and Models in Social Group Work 19
UNIT 3
Stages/Phases of Group Development 29
UNIT 4
Process of Group Formation 48
UNIT 5
Values and Principles in Social Group Work 65
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Surender Singh Prof. Sanjai Bhatt Prof. Anjali Gandhi
Former Vice Chancellor University of Delhi Jamia Milia Islamia
Kanshi Vidhyapeeth New Delhi New Delhi
Varanasi

Prof. Thomas Kalam Dr. Joseph Xavier Dr. Leena Mehta

St. John’s Medical College Indian Social Institute M.S. University
Bangalore Bangalore Vadodara

Dr. Mukul Srivastava Dr. Usha John Dr. Archana Dassi

Dr. B. R. Ambedkhar Loyala College Jamia Milia Islamia
University, Agra Trivandrum New Delhi

Dr. Jyoti Kakkar Dr. Ranjana Sehgal Dr. Beena Antony

Jamia Milia Islamia Indore School of Social Work Delhi University
New Delhi Indore New Delhi

Prof. Gracious Thomas Prof. Neil Abell Prof. Patricia Lager

IGNOU Florida State University Florida State University
New Delhi USA USA

BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Unit 1 Dr. Sonny Jose, Loyola College, Trivandrum &

Dr. Lekshmi Nair, Loyola College, Trivandrum
Units 2, 3 & 5 Dr. Ranjana Sehgal, Indore School of Social Work, Indore
Unit 4 Ms. Manju Kumar, Dr. B.R.A.C., University of Delhi, New Delhi

COURSE EDITOR PROGRAMME COORDINATOR

Prof. Gracious Thomas Dr. Sayantani Guin
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

PRINT PRODUCTION
Mr. Kulwant Singh
Section Officer (P)
SOSW, IGNOU

June, 2011
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2011
ISBN-978-81-266- 5359-1
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any
other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University Courses may be obtained
from the University’s Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi -110 068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by
Director, School of Social Work.
Laser Typeset by : Graphic Printers, Mayur Vihar, New Delhi
Printed by :
BLOCK INTRODUCTION

The Block on “Social Group Work I” discusses in detail one of the primary methods
in social work. It has five units.

The first unit on ‘Social Groups: Characteristics and Significance’ gives the learner a
comprehensive understanding about group, its types, and how group is significant in
social work practice. You will also be able to understand how group affects individual’s
personality development.

In the second unit on ‘Theories and Models in Social Group Work’ various theories
related to social group work are discussed. An elaborate discussion is also presented
in this unit on the different models of social group work.

The third unit namely, ‘Stages of Group Development’ deliberates on the various
stages involved in the formation of group for achieving its goal. It also throws light on
the role of the professional social worker during the various stages of group development.

In the fourth unit on ‘Process of Group Formation’ you will learn about the processes
involved inthe formation of a group. You will also learn about the factors affecting
group formation, theories of group formation and tasks undertaken by a social group
worker in the formation of a group.

The fifth unit is about ‘Values and Principles in Social Group Work’. As the title
suggests, this unit describes the values underlying social group work practice. This
unit also elaborates on the principles governing group work practice.

After going through this block you will have an understanding about the various aspects
of group formation and development and the values and principles of social group
work practice.
Social Group Work I

4
UNIT 1 SOCIAL GROUPS: CHARACTERISTICS
AND SIGNIFICANCE

Contents

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition and Characteristics of Groups
1.3 Factors Influencing Group Formation
1.4 Plausible Explanations About Group Formation
1.5 Types of Groups
1.6 Benefits of Groups
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Further Readings and References

1.0 OBJECTIVES
The present unit is intended at providing the learner a comprehensive understanding
of groups, its meaning, characteristics, typology, and its about various aspects
significant to social work practice. After reading this unit the learner should be able
to:
 define and identify the key characteristics of groups;
 assimilate factors influencing affiliation and the benefits of associating with groups;
 enumerate the various types of groups relevant to social group work practice;
 explain the impact of groups on personality development.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Each day, we interact with groups, in one form or in another - we are born into
and dwell in a group (family), we learn in groups (classrooms), we work in group
(office, project teams), we interact with friends, and we also spend much in leisure
groups. We learn, work, and play in groups. For that matter an individual’s personal
identity is moulded in the way in which we are perceived and treated by members
of our groups.

As humans we are by nature inherently social and gregarious. Our life is filled with
groups from the moment we are born until the moment of our death. Businesses,
the Government, and the military are all interested in enhancing the productivity of
groups. Educators too strive to understand how the classroom functions as a group.
Drug abuse, delinquency, crime and mental illness are all being treated through
therapeutic groups, and there is continued concern with making those procedures
more effective.
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Social Group Work I To understand the breadth of group work practice, it is important to be familiar with
the variety of groups in practice settings. Given the variety of groups, it is important
to distinguish between them.

1.2 DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

GROUPS
Contrary to the conventional understanding, not every collection of people can be
regarded a group. The Oxford English Dictionary defines group as “a number of
persons or things regarded as forming a unit, on account of any kind of mutual or
common relation, or classified together on account of a common degree of similarity.”

From the sociological perspective, a group can be defined as two or more humans
that interact with one another, accept expectations and obligations as members of
the group, as well as share a common identity. Going by this definition, society can
be perceived at the macro level as a large group, while a social group (e.g. family,
club, and team) which is considerably small may be viewed as small at the micro-
level.

According to Paul Hare, the defining characteristic of a group is social interaction.

A true group exhibits some degree of social cohesion and is more than a simple
collection or aggregate of individuals, such as people waiting at a bus stop.
Characteristics shared by members of a group may include interests, values, ethnic
or social background, and kinship ties. An aggregate is a collection of individuals
who are present at the same time and place, but does not necessarily form a unit
or have any common degree of similarity. Individuals standing at a street corner or
the members of an audience at a music programme constitute aggregates, not
groups.

Muzafer Sherif (1916-1982) formulated a more technical definition. According to

Sherif a group has to be ‘social unit consisting of a number of individuals interacting
with each other based on certain elements:
1) common motives and goals;
2) an accepted division of labour, i.e. roles,
3) established status (social rank, dominance) relationships;
4) accepted norms and values with reference to matters relevant to the group;
5) development of accepted sanctions (praise and punishment) if and when norms
were respected or violated.

Based on the above definitions one may consider a few criteria to call a group a
group:
 number of persons – more than one
 interdependence
 acceptance of roles and status
 similarity of goals, motives
 shared norms and values
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Characteristics Social Groups:
Characteristics and
Various other definitions given by different social scientists have emphasised on the Significance

various aspects of a group in various definitions. Based on these one may arrive at
the quintessential characteristics of groups:
 Interpersonal Interaction - A group is defined as a collection of individuals
interacting with each other; individuals are not a group unless they are interacting
with one another (Bonner, Stogdill, and Homans)
 Perceptions of Membership - A group may be defined as a social unit
consisting of two or more persons, who perceive themselves as belonging to
a group. Its members define themselves and are defined by others as belonging
to the group. Accordingly, the persons are not a group unless they perceive
themselves to be part of a group (Bales and Smith)
 Interdependency - Group may be defined as a collection of individuals who
are interdependent. Usually, individuals are not a group unless an event that
affects one of them affects them all. It is questionable that a group could exist
without its members being interdependent. (Cartright and Zander, Fiedler, and
Lewin.
 Goals - Group may be defined as a collection of individuals who join together
to achieve a goal. According to this definition, the individuals are not a group
unless they are trying to achieve a mutual goal. The primary defining characteristic
of a group is the craving of its members to achieve a mutual goal (Deutsch and
Freeman).
 Motivation - Group may be defined as a collection of individuals who are all
trying to satisfy some personal need through their joint association. Thus,
individuals are not a group unless they are motivated by some personal reason
to be part of a group (Bass and Cattell).
 Structured Relationships - A group may be a collection of individuals whose
interactions are structured by a set of roles and norms. They share norms
concerning matters of common interest and participate in a system of interlocking
roles. Therefore, individuals are not a group unless their interactions are
structured by a set of role definitions and norms (McDavid and Harari, and
Shel and Sherif).
 Mutual Influence - A group may be defined as a collection of individuals who
influence each other. Accordingly, individuals are not a group unless they are
affecting and being affected by each other (Shaw).
Not all these characteristics are equally important and although it is impossible to
gain consensus among social scientists as to which characteristics are most important.
However based on these characteristics we may define a group for the purpose of
group work as:

A group is two or more individuals in face to face interaction, each aware of

his or her membership in the group as well as of others who belong to the group,
and their positive interdependence as they strive to achieve mutual goals.

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Social Group Work I
Check Your Progress 1
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Indicate which of the following collections listed below may be classified
as groups or aggregates.
 spectators at a football game
 students in a science class
 individuals waiting at the bus stop
 a Sharukh Khan fan club
 all men in Mumbai with brown eyes
 a factory committee discussing the best way to handle a production
problem
 all people who drive Santro Xings
 a family consisting of a father, mother and two children, dining in a
hotel
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2) Define a group.
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3) What are the characteristics of a group?
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1.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING GROUP

FORMATION
There are four major factors that usually influence our decision to join and remain
in a wide variety of groups: attraction to members of the group; the activities, goals,
or the task of the group; belongingness to the people in the group; and meeting
needs or goals lying outside the group.

Attraction to the group most often grows out of proximity and the frequency of
interaction. Your neighbourhoods, classmates, roommates, and friendship are largely
8
determined by those who are in close proximity and also available for interaction. Social Groups:
Characteristics and
However, one must remember that proximity creates only the potential for attraction. Significance
Various other factors usually come into play when actually establishing a relationship.
Similarities, especially attitudinal similarity or vibes, appear to be as strong in group
formation as in interpersonal attraction. Several other attributes of groups render
them more attractive to prospective members and thus contribute to group formation.
 prestige of a group; e.g. members who have positions of higher authority,
aristocracy and eliteness
 possibility of cooperative relationships and joint rewards heighten the
attractiveness of a group
 the degree of positive interaction among members increasing the range of
personal and social needs being met.
 size of the group; smaller groups offer higher possibility for interaction, for
sharing similarities, and for meeting individual needs
The task of a group, as experienced in its activities and goals, is the second factor
influencing group affiliation. You join a photography club because you enjoy taking
pictures, discussing and sharing that activity with others. You may even join a
protest group to resist something that goes against your ideals; e.g. we join Green
Peace to protest against environmental exploitation by Corporations, or, we may
even join students’ movements to protest against the hike in tuition fees or cut down
in transport concessions because you cannot afford to pay more. Thus, you are
gaining rewards directly through group membership. The social exchange theory (Homans,
1959; Gouldner, 1960) to group formation predicts that we join and remain in
groups when the rewards for doing so outweigh the costs, thus yielding profits.

The third general factor of group formation is our desire to affiliate with the people
in that group. We satisfy our need for affiliation through interacting with people, just as
we meet our need for achievement through the activities and goals of the group.
The fact that we affiliate for reasons of social comparison, in order to reduce anxiety,
or to even to satisfy an innate craving, suggests that a group is a powerful forum for
meeting our basic social needs and can yield a strong influence on our behaviour.

Group membership may help us meet needs that lie outside the group - thus, group
membership may be a stepping stone to achieve an external goal, rather than a
source of direct satisfaction. A college professor may regularly attend meetings of a
professional association to enhance the probability of promotion. A candidate for
political office may join a host of community organisations to enhance his or her
chances for election.

1.4 PLAUSIBLE EXPLANATIONS ABOUT

GROUP FORMATION
Based on the various factors influencing group formation, the following may be
hypothesized:
1) people join groups in order to satisfy certain individual needs.
2) proximity, contact and frequent interaction provide an opportunity to satisfy
certain needs.
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Social Group Work I 3) interpersonal attraction is a function of physical attractiveness, perceived ability
of the other person (success or failure), need compatibility as well as various
similarities - attitudinal, personality, economic, ethnicity, shared goals, etc.
4) individuals join groups if the activities of the group attractive or rewarding.

Check Your Progress II

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What factors influence the formation of groups?
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1.5 TYPES OF GROUPS

All of us are simultaneously members of various types of groups. We are members
of a family, members of friendship groups, members of work organisations and members
of fan club or a even a religious group. Sociologists have attempted to classify is various
types of groups as follows:
 Voluntary vs. Involuntary Groups

We may join a political party or a particular association (typical of an

occupation).Such groups we join through our own choice and effort are voluntary
groups. In contrast we are forced to join or are automatically incorporated as
members of certain groups without choice; e.g. we are automatically classified in
groups as members based on sex, age, nationality, religion and ethnicity. These
latter groups in which we become members by birth or without any choice are
involuntary groups.

 Open vs. Closed Groups

Open groups are those groups characterized by changing membership. Here, virtually
anyone can become a member. As certain members leave, new members are admitted,
and the group continues. For instance, anyone can join the Hrithik Roshan fan club.
On the other hand, there are some groups that maintain exclusiveness by restricting the
membership and make it much more difficult to join. Only a few qualify to become
members in such clubs. Such groups with restrictive membership criteria are closed
groups; e.g. the mafia (underworld), Royal Enfield motorcycle clubs, night clubs, etc.
Closed groups typically have some time limitation, with the group meeting for a
predetermined number of sessions. Generally, members are expected to remain in
the group until it ends, and new members are not added.

There are some advantages to open groups that incorporate new members as
others leave, one of which is an increased opportunity for members to interact with
10 a greater variety of people. A potential disadvantage of open groups is that rapid
changing of members can result in a lack of cohesion, particularly if too many clients Social Groups:
Characteristics and
leave or too many new ones are introduced at once. Therefore, it will be better to Significance
bring in new members one at a time as and when opening occurs.

 Vertical vs. Horizontal Groups

There are certain groups, whose membership consists of individuals from all walks
of life; e.g. religious groups may have members from all classes. Such a group may
be regarded as a vertical group. On the other hand, a horizontal group consists
predominantly of members from one social class. Occupational groups of doctors
(e.g. IMA); guilds or associations of persons of a trade e.g. electricians, carpenters,
non-gazatted officers for instance are composed largely of members from the same
social class..

 Primary vs. Secondary Groups

Cooley described primary groups as collectivities of individuals – as in the case of

play groups, neighbourhood or village – “characterized by intimate, sympathetic
face-to-face association and cooperation.” A primary group is a group in which
members develop close, personal, intimate and enduring relationships; e.g. family,
neighbours, work associates, etc. Here, the members know each other very well,
are greatly influenced by one another and feel closely related. On the other hand,
secondary groups are characterized by contractual relationships and ‘communication
on indirect media’ (Faris, 1937). These are ‘relatively larger, relatively temporary,
anonymous’; they are also ‘formal, impersonal groups, in which there is little social
intimacy or mutual understanding’and ‘based on some interest or activity’, and
whose ‘members interact on the basis of some specific roles.’

 Natural vs. Formed Groups

Natural groups consist of members coming together in a spontaneous manner, on the

basis of naturally occurring events, interpersonal attraction or the mutually perceived
needs of members. Family, peer groups and street gangs are examples of natural
groups. (Whyte, 1993). On the other hand, formed group are those groups constituted
by any influence or intervention external to the group. Such groups are usually formed
for a particular purpose. Therapy groups, encounter groups, committees and teams
are examples of formed groups.

 Formal vs. Informal Groups

Formal groups are those groups that require someone to determine a task that
needs to be accomplished, which requires some kind of organizational system,
made up of various job roles, for which individuals are recruited (Artherton, 2003).
Here, task is what matters, and everything else—particularly the individuals and the
roles they occupy—may be changed. Informal groups work the other way round.
A group of individuals meet: if they form a group, then they will informally allocate
roles depending on individual preferences, and / or on talents. This collection of
roles makes a system possible, and so occasionally they may undertake a task
together, such as organizing a trip, or a night out or a party. It is the preferences
of the Individuals which are paramount; tasks are incidental.

 Treatment vs. Task Groups

Treatment groups signify groups whose major purpose is to meet the socio-emotional
11
Social Group Work I needs of the group members. Such groups often aim at meeting the members’ need
for support, education, therapy, growth and socialization. Treatment groups include
growth groups (e.g. encounter groups for couples, value clarification groups for
adolescents, or educative groups for community women); therapy groups
(psychotherapy groups, support groups for de- addicted or the sober) (Konopka,
1983); socialization groups (YMCA, half-way homes) (Middleman, 1982; Whittaker,
1985). In contrast, task groups come in existence with the purpose of accomplishing
a goal that is neither intrinsically nor immediately linked to the needs of the group
members, but rather, of broader constituency. The classic example for task groups
in social work practice setting are Medical Teams, Treatment conferences convened
to monitor treatment as well as Staff Development (Programs). Some of the major
difference between treatment and task groups include the following:
 members in treatment groups are bonded to their common needs, where as in
a task group, the members are working towards accomplishing a task or a
mandate which eventually might lead to bonding
 roles develop through interaction in treatment groups, while in task roles are
usually defined based on competencies
 communication is open in treatment groups, while communication in task groups
are focused around a particular task
 procedures in treatment groups are flexible, while it is formal and based on
agendas in task groups
 self-disclosure is high in treatment groups, whereas it might not at all happen
in task groups
 proceedings are confidential and kept within the context of the treatment groups,
where as in task groups it may be open to public scrutiny
 success of treatment groups is evaluated on the basis of the group meeting the
members’ treatment goals, where as in task groups it is based on the achievement
of task or a mandate
The type of group that we discussed last – formed groups as well as treatment
groups – are of great interest to group work, as the groups that we come across in
group work predominantly belong to this type of groups.

Other types of groups include the following:

 Reference Group - Individuals almost universally have a bond toward what are
known as reference groups. These are groups to which the individual
conceptually relates him/herself, and from which he/she adopts goals and values
as a part of his/her self identity.
 Peer group - A peer group is a group of approximately the same age, social
status, and interests. Generally, people are relatively equal in terms of power
when they interact with peers.
 Clique - An informal, tight-knit group, usually in a High School/College setting,
that shares common interests. There is an established yet shifting power structure
in most Cliques.
 Club - A club is a group, which usually requires one to apply to become a
member. Such clubs may be dedicated to particular activities, such as sporting
12
clubs.
 Household - all individuals who live in the same home Social Groups:
Characteristics and
 Community - A community is a group of people with a commonality or sometimes Significance

a complex net of overlapping commonalities, often - but not always - in

proximity with one another with some degree of continuity over time. They
often have some organization and leaders.
 Franchise- this is an organisation which runs several instances of a business in
many locations.
 Gang - A gang is usually an urban group that gathers in a particular area. It is
a group of people that often hang around each other. They can be like some
clubs, but much less formal.
 Mob - A mob is usually a group of people that has taken the law into their own
hands. Mobs are usually a group which gather temporarily for a particular
reason.
 Posse - A posse was initially an American term for a group of citizens that had
banded together to enforce the law. However, it can also refer to a street
group.
 Squad - This is usually a small group, of around 3-8 people, that would work
as a team to accomplish their goals.
 Team - similar to a squad, though a team may contain many more members.
A team works in a similar way to a squad
 Learning (groups) - Drs David and Roger Johnson of the University of Minnesota
(the gurus of group work and co-operative learning research) identify three
types of groups that can promote collaborative learning:
 Informal learning groups -Ad hoc, transient, short-term groups that can be
quickly formed and utilised in even a large lecture situation. Formal learning
groups - The sort of groups that we would use to work on larger
collaborative projects. This type of group work is more structured and
requires much more planning. Formal learning groups generally include
multiple opportunities for reflection on the group’s progress.
 Base groups (study group) - Self-selected groups of students who work
together independently of specified class time or assignments.

Check Your Progress III

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What are the various types of groups?
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Logistics regarding Groups
Group Composition
Whether a group should be homogeneous (consisting of members from similar age- 13
Social Group Work I groups, sex and socio-economic background) or a heterogeneous in membership,
depends on the group’s goals. In the context of social group work, given specific
target population with specific needs, a group composed entirely of members of
that population quite similar in characteristics is more appropriate than a heterogeneous
group. For example, let us consider a group composed entirely of elderly people.
Such a group would be able to focus exclusively and deal more consistently on the
specific problems that characterize their developmental period, e.g. loneliness,
isolation, loss in income and eventually social position, rejection, deterioration of the
body, atrophy in energy and so forth. This similarity among the members can lead
to a great degree of cohesion, which in turn offers the possibility for an open and
intense exploration of their life crises, leading to universalisation (as a principle) of
their problems. Members are more likely to express feelings that have been once
kept private. Moreover, their life circumstances create a bond with one another.
Similarly, self-help groups (SHGs) for women also benefit greatly from the
homogeneity of the composition of their group, enabling them to pursue the common
goal of credit management (thrift-savings) or self-development in a concerted fashion.
Alternately, where it is desired to provide diverse, socially challenging growth
experiences, a microcosm of the outside social structure is desired. In such an
event, a heterogeneous group is best. Personal-growth groups and certain therapy
groups tend to be heterogeneous. Thus, participant members are allowed to
experiment with new behaviour and develop interpersonal skills with the help of
feedback from a rich variety of people in an environment representative of everyday
reality.
Group Size
There has been contesting views regarding the desirable size for a group. The
answer depends on several factors: the age of clients, experience of the leader, type
of group, and nature of the problems to be explored. For instance, a group composed
of elementary school children might be kept to 4 to 6, whereas a group of adolescents
might be made up of 8 to 12 people. For a weekly ongoing group of adults, about
10 to 12 people with one leader may be ideal. A group manageable in size, is big
enough to give ample opportunity for interaction and small enough for everyone to
be involved and to feel a sense of “group.”
Frequency and Duration of Meetings
Another bone of contention is regarding the periodicity of group meetings. Questions
frequently posed include:
 How often should a group meet?
 For how long should a group meet twice weekly for 1-hour sessions? Or is
1½ to 2 hours once a week preferable?
With children and adolescents it may be better to meet more frequently and for a
shorter period to suit their attention span. If the group is taking place in a school
setting, the meeting times can correspond to regularly scheduled class periods. For
groups of college students or relatively well functioning adults, a 2-hour weekly
session might be preferable. A 2-hour period is sufficient to allow some intensive
work yet, not so long that fatigue sets in. You can choose any frequency and
duration that suit your style of leadership and the type of people in your group. For
an in-patient group in a mental health centre, it is desirable to meet on a daily basis
for 45 minutes. Because of the members’ psychological impairment, it may not be
realistic to hold their attention for a longer period.

14
Group Life-cycle Social Groups:
Characteristics and
Other questions that have often intrigued us are: Significance

 What should be the duration of a group?

 Is it wise to set a termination date?
For most groups (in the social work perspective) a termination date should be
announced at the outset, so that members will have a clear idea of the time frame
within which they would be operating. Groups in educational institutions typically
run for about 15 weeks. This would be long enough for trust to develop and for
work toward behavioural changes to take place. But it should not be so long that
the group seems to be dragging on interminably. A major value of this type of time
limited group is that members are motivated to realize that they do not have forever
to attain their personal goals. At different points in this 15-week group, members
are challenged to review their progress, both individually and as a group. If they are
dissatisfied with their own participation or with the direction the group is taking,
they have the responsibility to do something to change the situation.
Some groups compose of the same members who meet for years. Such a time
structure allows them to work through issues in some depth, and offers support and
challenge in making life changes. These ongoing groups do have the potential for
fostering dependency, and thus it is important that both the leader and members
evaluate the impact of the group on the clients’ daily living.
Place for Group Meetings
Other questions concern the environment and ambience for group meetings. Many
places will do, but privacy is essential. Members must be assured that they will not
be overheard by people in adjoining rooms.
Groups often fail because of their physical setting. If they are held in a day hall or
ward full of distractions, productive group work will not occur. You would require
a room that is not cluttered up with chairs and tables and that allows for a comfortable
seating arrangement. Members must be able to sit in a circle. This arrangement lets
all the participants see one another and allows enough freedom of movement that
members can spontaneously make physical contact.
Dispersal and transformation of groups
Two or more people in interacting situations will over time develop stable territorial
relationships. As described above, these may or may not develop into groups. But
stable groups can also break up in to several sets of territorial relationships. There
are numerous reasons for stable groups to malfunction or to disperse, but essentially
this is because of loss of compliance with one or more elements of the definition
of group provided by Sherif. The two most common causes of a malfunctioning
group are the addition of too many individuals, and the failure of the leader to
enforce a common purpose, though malfunctions may occur due to a failure of any
of the other elements (i.e., confusions regarding status or of norms).
In a society, there is obvious need for more people to participate in cooperative
endeavours than can be accommodated by separate groups. The military has
demonstrated best as to how this is possible by its hierarchical array of squads,
platoons, companies, battalions, regiments, and divisions. Private companies,
corporations, government agencies, clubs, too have all developed comparable (if
less formal and standardized) systems when the number of members or employees
exceeds the number that can be accommodated in an effective group. Not all larger
social structures require the cohesion that may be found in the small group. Consider
15
Social Group Work I the neighbourhood, country club, or the diocese, which are basically territorial
organizations who support large social purposes. Any such large organisations may
need only islands of cohesive leadership.
For a functioning group to attempt to add new members in a casual way is a certain
prescription for failure, loss of efficiency, or disorganization. The number of functioning
members in a group can be reasonably flexible between five and ten, and a long-
standing cohesive group may be able to tolerate a few part-timers. The key concept
is that the value and success of a group is obtained by each member maintaining
a distinct, functioning identity in the minds of each of the members. The cognitive
limit to this span of control on individuals often set at seven. Rapid shifting of
attention can push the limit to about ten. Beyond ten, subgroups will inevitably start
to form with the attendant loss of purpose, dominance order, and individuality, with
confusion of roles and rules. The standard classroom with twenty to forty pupils and
one teacher is a rueful example of one supposed leader juggling a number of
subgroups.

Weakening of the common purpose once a group is well established can be attributed
to: adding new members; unsettled conflicts of identities (i.e., territorial problems in
individuals); weakening of a settled dominance order; and weakening or failure of
the leader to tend to the group. The actual loss of a leader is frequently fatal to a
group, unless there was lengthy preparation for the transition. The loss of the leader
tends to dissolve all dominance relationships, as well as weakening dedication to
common purpose, differentiation of roles, and maintenance of norms. The most
common symptoms of a troubled group are loss of efficiency, diminished participation,
or weakening of purpose, as well as an increase in verbal aggression. Often, if a
strong common purpose is still present, a simple reorganization with a new leader
and a few new members will be sufficient to re-establish the group, which is
somewhat easier than forming an entirely new group.

Check Your Progress IV

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What are the major considerations in planning formation of groups? Or
What are the logistical factors one need to seriously consider in planned
group formation.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

1.6 BENEFITS OF GROUPS

Affiliation to groups carries certain implications, both constructive and detrimental.
Given below are some of these:
1) In most circumstances, the productivity of groups is higher than that of the
individuals. This synergy is best demonstrated in the form of team work whether
it be in cricket, football or at work.
2) Groups are likely to make effective decisions and solve the problems better
16
 than individuals working alone. When problems are discussed in groups, there Social Groups:
Characteristics and
is a better probability for clarification out of which a variety of solutions Significance
emerge. It is for this very reason that we constitute committees.
3) It is through group membership that we inculcate values of altruism, kindness,
compassion, responsibility and so forth. Family and peer groups are such
primary groups responsible for engraving into us a wide range of such human
values.
4) The quality of emotional life in terms of friendship, love, excitement, joy, fulfillment
and achievement is richer in groups and helps in personal growth. A person
who does not have any relationship with others will not be able to experience
most of the emotions. The quality of everyday life is better in groups because
of the advantages of specialization and division of labour.
5) Conflicts are absorbed better considering the possibility of sharing. Similarly,
conflicts are managed more productively in groups owing to the peer support
and a variety of ideas to problem solving.
6) A person’s identity, self-esteem and social competencies are easily clarified and
shaped by the groups to which he/she belongs. Being a member of different
kinds of groups provides you with an identity, e.g. a student, family member,
caste, etc. Friendship (groups) offer opportunities to experiment with different
kinds of behaviour without the threat of rejection thereby helping to develop
the self- esteem.

Even while groups provide a lot of benefits, social scientists have also pointed out
aspects of groups that are not very constructive. For one, people in groups are for
reasons of anonymity and security, are more likely to take more extreme positions
and engage in impulsive and antisocial behaviours. Another negative aspect is the
tendency of groups to force their members to conform, in extreme cases even
threatening the identity of the individuals. Social scientists also point out that
sometimes group affiliations become so strong that group members turn hostile on
non-members and other groups. Intense group behaviour may precipitate several
conflicts in the society.

However, a proper understanding of groups and its proper application in dealing

with groups within the context of social work will help us reap the immense benefits
from using groups. Experiments conducted by social scientists have proved time
and again the strengths of using groups for the development of the individual and
society. That is the reason why an understanding of groups is crucial to the practice
of group work. In the context of group work, groups contribute immensely to the
personality development of individuals.

1.7 LET US SUM UP

We constantly interact with groups that consist of individuals and for various purposes,
every moment of our lives. Characteristically groups consist of two or more
individuals mutually dependant, having similarities and shared goals, etc. The dominant
factors influencing group formation are prestige, commonality of tasks, desire for
affiliation, and need satisfaction. Groups come in various forms depending on the
context and the purposes they are constituted for. The most common groups are:
Voluntary and Involuntary, Open and Closed, Formal and Informal, Treatment and
17
Social Group Work I Task, etc. There are frequently asked questions regarding the size of the groups,
the duration of group life, the ideals regarding the meeting place, etc. all of which
may be determined based on the context and subject to scientific bases. More
importantly, groups are instrumental in moulding the individual’s personality, as it
provides opportunities for problem-solving, self-esteem building, conflict resolution
and for that matter the socialization of the person in a society. To this end, groups
become very much relevant to social group work practice

1.8 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

1) Atherton J S (2003) Learning and Teaching: Group Cultures [On-line] UK:
Available: [Link]
2) Bonner, H. 1959. Group Dynamics: Principles and Applications. New York:
Ronald.
3) Cartwright, D. 1968. “The Nature of Group Cohesiveness”, Group Dynamics:
Research and Theory. D. Cartwright, A. Zander, eds.,3rd Edition. New York:
Harper & Row.
4) Cooley, C.H., 1937. Social Organization. New York: Charles Scribner’s
Sons.
5) Corey, M.S. 2002. Group Process and Practice, New York: Brooks/Cole.
6) Faris, E. 1937. The Nature of Human Nature. NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Inc.
7) Homan, G.C. 1950. the Human Group. New York: Harcourt, Brace and
World.
8) Johnson, D.W. and Johnson, P.F. Joining Together. New Jersey: Prentice-
Hall.
9) Shaw, M.E. 1977. Group Dynamics. New Delhi: Tata-McGraw Hill.
10) Stodgill, R.M. 1959. Individual Behaviour and Group Achievement. New
Jersey: Oxford.
11) Toseland, R.W.2001. An Introduction to Group Work Practice. New York:
Allyn and Bacon.
12) Hare, A. P. 1962. Handbook of small group research. New York: Macmillan.
13) Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 1970. Oxford: Claredon Press
14) Sherif, Muzafer and Sherif, Carolyn W., An Outline of Social Psychology
[Link]. New York: Harper & Brothers
15) Simon, Herbert A. 1976. Administrative Behavior 3rd rd ed. The Free Press
16) Whyte, F.W. 1993. Street Corner Society: The Social Structure of an Italian
Slum. Chicago: University Press.

18
UNIT 2 THEORIES AND MODELS IN
SOCIAL GROUP WORK

Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Theories in Social Group Work
2.3 Models of Social Group Work
2.4 Let Us Sum Up
2.5 Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES
The Work of Gisela Konopka at the Pittsburgh Guidance Centre in 1938 and Fritz
Redl’s Detroit Group Project in the early 1940s made social group work very popular
as a method of social work. Thereafter, it has been used widely in clinics, hospitals,
rehabilitation centers and so on. In India, professional Social Workers have been
practicing indigenous models of group work in almost every field of Social Work.
After studying this unit you would be able to understand:
 Theories contributing to our understanding of group behaviour; and
 The main features or major concerns of various models of social group work

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Social group work is based on the idea of man as a constantly developing human
being in necessary and significant interactions with other men. He is shaped by others
and also shaping others. Apart from basic needs, he needs to belong, to be an important
individual, and to participate. Every human being requires help to fulfill needs, and to
deal with dissatisfactions and frustrations in life. Social group work practice facilitates
the development of the individual’s personality through guided group interaction. Help
is possible only when there is utilization of group potentialities through interaction.
Thus, understanding group behaviour is indispensable and has utmost importance in
the group. Theories in social group work help to understand this group behaviour.
Since a particular way of group behaviour is the main modality for fulfilling needs or in
other words for bringing change in the environment or in the member’s intrapersonal
or interpersonal relationships, social group work uses various models or approaches
to accomplish group goals. The present endeavour, hence, in this unit will be to discuss
various theories and models of social group work.

2.2 THEORIES IN SOCIAL GROUP WORK

‘Theory’ is a plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of facts
offered to explain phenomena. For example, Social Learning Theory describes how
human behaviour is a product of environmental, social and personal factors. In the
context of group work, theories are on the whole scientifically accepted facts or
statements for understanding individuals and their relationships with others. Therefore, 19
Social Group Work I group work is based on eclectic theory of individuals and groups. There are no
independent theories as such in social group work method, but in the core of social
group work practice, we use theories of individual dynamics and theories of group
dynamics borrowed from various disciplines for understanding group behaviour. Now
we shall discuss those theories.

Theory of Individual Dynamics

An individual is understood, in social group work, on the basis of psychoanalytic

theory and cultural components as well as knowledge of social psychology and
sociology.

Importance of early childhood experiences: A child initially engages in one-to-

one relationship i.e. interacts only with the mother. Later on, he/she begins to
interact with others outside the mother. The earliest experience of interaction
within the family or outside provides the child a valuable mental and emotional
learning experience which he/she begins to apply as he/she grows and begins to
reach out beyond the intimate family group to peers (Konopka, 1963). Thus,
these experiences have a great impact on personality development.

Man’s actions are influenced by unconscious motivation as well as by his

capacity to act consciously and rationally: This concept is directly related to
group work practice. The group worker guides the individual members in a group
to participate in the programme activities and to relate to other members in the
group in order to fulfill certain personal and social needs. In other words, the
capacity to control difficult inner forces can be achieved and the insight of the
individual can be strengthened through constant interaction with others through
group work.

The concept of ambivalence: The human being can experience two opposing
emotions at the same time towards the same person or situation. In case of change,
they wish to be involved in the change process, but at the same time they resist
change and desire to keep their identity as it is.

Development theory of human being: Human beings pass through various stages
in their life. In the first year, when child is under the loving adult, a sense of trust
is established. In the next stage a sense of autonomy, is felt when the child can
understand the boundaries of his/her self-determination. The third, fourth and
fifth stages are sense of initiative, sense of industry and a sense of identity
respectively. Sense of intimacy, which comes next, is the beginning of interest in
the other sex and in marriage. Adulthood is the period of parental sense. The last
stage is the sense of integrity when a well-integrated adult can accept himself as
different from others and yet able to have and accept others (Friedlander, 1976).
Having accepted this developmental theory, a group worker tries to know whether
the group member with whom he deals with constantly has had adequate
development through their different stages of developments. He needs to lessen
some of their negative experiences. The worker also facilitates positive group
experiences to compensate for the developmental lags.

Group association changes as per the need and focus in the group, depends
on group goals: Every person in his/her lifespan belongs to three types of groups
i.e. primary group (the family) where he is born, friendship groups, and the vital-
interest groups. The primary group or family plays a fundamental role during childhood,
20
the friendship group is most important in adolescence, and adulthood seeks vital interest Theories and Models in
Social Group Work
groups. A person in his adulthood forms a new family, becomes a parent and feels the
reversal of roles. A social group worker may apply the same logic for fulfilling group
member’s needs. His focus or emphasis is intricately related to group goals. In ‘growth-
oriented’ groups (eg. therapeutic groups), the worker is aware of every individual’s
specific needs, whereas in ‘task-oriented’ groups (eg. adult community groups), although
focus is on every individual’s needs, more emphasis is on the accomplishment of group
goals (Friedlander, 1976).

Theory of Group Dynamics

When an individual belongs to a group, his behaviour is determined not only by his
inner forces but also by the people around him. Hence, apart from the individual
dynamics, a social group worker must know the group dynamics or various concepts
of the group process. These concepts include: acceptance or rejection, isolation
(neglected and rejected) sub groups, group bond, group hostility and group contagion,
group support, and group conflict.

Acceptance or rejection: A group worker must know every individual group

member’s relationship with other group members or how much power each one has
over the other i.e. whether he is accepted by others or isolated. If a member is isolated,
the group worker must know the meaning and causes of isolation. It may be because
the individual’s behaviour has offended the other members due to variations in Socio-
cultural background or personality differences. Sometimes the situation is worse than
the isolation i.e. the individual is rejected by the group and exposed to open hostility.
Thus the questions of isolation or rejection need to be addressed by the group worker
by handling interpersonal and intrapersonal issues in the group.

Sub groups: There is no group where all members come together to perform every
task Formation of sub groups are very natural and they emerge spontaneously. The
group worker has to observe whether these sub groups threaten the unity of the group
or are friendly formations. He has to act accordingly. It should be known that emotional
acceptance of the inevitability and legitimacy of sub groups is a pre requisite for good
and skillful group work. A worker who works against the sub groups, loses the whole
group (Konopka, 1963).

Group bond: It refers to ‘group cohesiveness’ or ‘sense of belonging’. It is the force

bringing group members closer. Group bond may be emotional or task-related.
‘Emotional bond’ derives from the connection that members feel to other group
members and ‘task-related bond’ refers to the degree to which group members share
group goals and work together to meet these goals. The effectiveness of a group can
be understood through group bond. The main factors that influence group bond are:
members’similarity, group size, entry difficulty, group success, and external competition
and threats. Thus, group bond is a powerful aspect of group dynamics.

Group hostility and group contagion: Group hostility, in most of the cases, is
found among the exploited or depressed or minority groups. Hostility means aggression
or resentment or unfriendliness. A very fine man or gentle person can express hostile
attitude because of the fact that he is part of a hostile group atmosphere. Group
contagion is the tendency to catch and feel emotions that are similar to and influenced
by others in the group. In this regard, Barsade (2002) comments: ‘It is a process in
which a person or group influences the emotions or behaviour of another person or
group through the conscious or unconscious induction of emotion states and behavioural 21
Social Group Work I attitudes’. Group contagion may occur during examination or when two children are
upset in a camp or when some external threats come.

Group support: Any work becomes easy in a group when support and courage
come from other members. A child having good behaviour does not have any motive
towards stealing but he/she may do it while interacting in a group. We find in group
therapy that each individual shares experiences with others ‘who are in the same boat’
and accumulate moral support, information as well as advice on the problems and
experience growth opportunities. The group support thus is an instrument for solving
individual problem in the group.

Group conflict: There exists no group without any conflict. Maturity of a group can
be understood by observing how a group resolves conflict. Normally conflict can be
solved or mitigated through withdrawal of one part of the group (giving up or running
away or starting another group), subjugation (powerful part forces others to follow
their wish), majority rule (major people decide action), minority consent (minority
agrees with any option), compromise (each party agrees to the limit set by them), and
integration (conflicting opinions are discussed and reworked for solution) [Konopka,
1963]. Integration is the most mature way of conflict resolution (Friedlander, 1976).
The worker, while performing the helping role in a group, should have knowledge on
‘group conflict’ for better handling of the clash or arguments and decision-making.
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Discuss how early childhood experiences are important for understanding
individual dynamics.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) How do you use the term ‘group conflict’ while dealing with group dynamics?
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2.3 MODELS OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK

In the initial days, the conventional view for the purpose of group work was prevention,
but afterwards group workers were gradually involved in treatment as a primary goal.
As group workers embarked on practice in a range of settings, they attempted to
describe repeated patterns of phenomena and to define practice in the language of
science. This led to the development of a wide variety of theoretical models for practicing
group work. A model enables the group worker to focus on problems in a holistic
22 manner. What kind of model to be employed in a group today depends on the group
goals or objectives or purposes. There are several classical as well as a few Theories and Models in
Social Group Work
contemporary models and we shall discuss here the major models seemingly found in
practice.

Papell and Rothman (1966) have pioneered three models i.e. the social goals model,
the remedial model, and the reciprocal model. These are at the core of social group
work tradition.

Social Goals Model: The settlement house movement, the social movement, the
labour union movement, and the women’s movements of the 1930s in USA are the
roots of the social goals model (Sullivan et al., 2003). The central focus of this model
is on ‘social consciousness’ and ‘social responsibility’. It helps members of the
community to work on solving social issues and bringing about social change for
oppressed populations. The model has a strong avowed social values stance. Cohen
and Mullender (1999) assert that the social goals model is referred to in recent literature
as social action group work. The principles of democratic group process are
fundamental to this model. Principles guiding practice involving the social goals model
include: clarification of agency policy, positive use of limitations, identification with
agency goals, determination of appropriate issues for collective action, and the weighing
of alternatives for action and their consequences (Papell and Rothman, 1966).

Remedial Model: The function of the remedial model is the treatment of individuals.
It tends to be clinically oriented. The model focuses on those who have problems of
adjustment in personal and social relations (Fatout, 1992). A worker undergoes this
model while dealing with a group of persons with emotional problem or teaching skills
of daily living to a group of mentally handicapped children. The group worker, in this
model, is viewed as a change agent who facilitates interaction among members of the
group to achieve change. He is in a some-what superior position than the group members
whose social skills are impaired or not fully developed. The worker using this model
exercises considerable authority, instructs model behaviour for group members, and
creates an atmosphere which motivates individual growth. The group participants here
are regarded as clients rather than members (Brandler and Roman, 1999). The remedial
model is widely used in mental health centers, correctional institutions, family service
organizations, counseling services, schools, health care facilities, and in many other
agencies.

Reciprocal Model: The reciprocal model has been derived from the systems theory,
field theory, social psychological theories of behaviour, and the practice principles that
are a part of generic methodology for social work (Skidmore et al., 1988). There is a
duality of attention in this model i.e. it serves both the individual and society. In other
words, reciprocal model focuses on the major concerns of both social goals model
and remedial model at the same time (Fatout, 1992). According to Papell and Rothman
(1966), the thrust of this model is to establish a mutual aid system and worker or
members do not keep here any preconceived goals. The image of the worker is a
mediator or an enabler who is viewed as a part of the worker-client system.

Researchers have studied to understand how small groups develop. Thus, we find
several models of Small Group Development such as Kurt Lewin’s Model, Tubb’s
Model, Fisher’s Model, Tuckman’s Model, Poole’s Model, Gersick’s Punctuated
Equlibrium Model, Wheelan’s Model, and Team Model. These have been discussed
here briefly:

Kurt Lewin’s Model: Kurt Lewin is remembered for coining the term ‘group 23
Social Group Work I dynamics’. His model of individual change is a stepping stone for many pioneers who
have contributed theoretically. Kurt Lewin’s model has three stages such as unfreezing,
change, and freezing in a change process or small group. The first stage makes effort
to remove lethargy or sluggishness and dismantles the existing ‘mind set’. The second
stage is the transition phase that brings change. In the last phase, the new mindset is
crystallized and individual becomes stable.

Tubb’s Model: Stewart Tubb studied small group interaction and developed systems
model with four phases such as orientation, conflict, consensus and closure. In the first
phase, group members introduce each other, start talking on the problems and examine
the strengths as well as weaknesses. Ideas are evaluated through conflict in the second
phase. Conflict ends in the third phase and the last stage announces result.

Fisher’s Model: Fisher’s model of decision emergence outlines four phases i.e.
orientation, conflict, emergence, and reinforcement. In the first phase, members
get to know each other and experience primary tension. Second phase is meant
for conflict and marked by secondary tension. Members there disagree with each
other and debate ideas. Group’s tasks as well as members’ viewpoints become
apparent in the emergence phase and group members bolster their final decision
in the last phase ([Link]/wiki/group_development).

Tuckman’s Model: Bruce Tuckman having reviewed almost fifty studies in the
mid nineteen sixties proposed a new model of group development. The model
initially (in 1965) had four stages, but later on (in 1977) added one more stage
and thus today it includes forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning
stages. Forming is the first stage when individuals are collected and each member
is preoccupied with issues of joining or inclusion. Confusion, low morale, hidden
feelings, poor listening, and un-involvement are visible more in this phase.
Storming stage is the point at which members are beginning to seek individual
roles or space and conflict arises as they search for compatible tasks or struggle
for status in the group. In the third phase, there are establishment of norms or
accepted ways of doing things. Group culture emerges. Members start using the
term ‘our group’. Group develops trust, cohesion and a degree of intimacy (Brown,
1986). Performing is the fourth stage where group becomes self-sufficient and
use all the skills as well as potential of the members to achieve its aims and solve
problems. In the last phase group disbands

Poole’s Model: Marshall Scott Poole’s multiple-sequences model addresses

decision making. The model has several tracks such as task track, topic track,
relation track, and breakpoints. The tasks track refer to the process by which the
group accomplishes its goals. The topic track concerns the specific item the group is
discussing at the time. The relation track deals with the interpersonal relationships
between the group members and breakpoints occur when a group switches from one
track to another (Poole, 1981).

Gersick’s Model Gersick’s punctuated equilibrium model suggests, that groups develop
through the sudden formation, maintenance, and sudden revision of a ‘framework for
performance’. The model works in the following way: Phase I – The first half of the
groups calendar time is an inertial movement whose direction is set by the end of the
group’s first meeting. In this meeting, members behaviours may be influenced by prior
expectations, contexts relating to the sponsoring organization, and preferred behaviours.
Midpoint Transition – at the midpoint of the allotted calendar time, groups undergo a
24 transition during which the direction of the group is revised for phase 2. Gersick calls
this a ‘problematic search and pacing’ which stems from the group’s awareness of Theories and Models in
Social Group Work
problems. Phase 2 - the second period of inertia focuses on carrying out the plan
formulated during the transition. Progress may spurt ahead in order to reach a markedly
accelerated conclusion (Cole, 2005).

Wheelan’s Model Susan Wheelan’s ‘integrated model’ of group development has

five phases i.e. dependency and inclusion, counter dependency and fight, trust/structure,
work/productivity, and final. The first stage is characterized by significant member
dependency on the designated leader, concerns about safety, and inclusion issues. In
the second phase, members disagree among themselves about group goals and
procedures. The next phase shows, member trust, commitment to the group, and
willingness to cooperate increase. The fourth stage of group development is a time of
intense team productivity and effectiveness. Separation and members appreciation of
each other are addressed in the final phase ([Link]/wiki/
group_development).

Team Model : Team Evaluation and Maturation (TEAM) model identified by Morgan,
Salas and Glickman has seven main stages such as first meeting (forming), unstable
situation (storming), accommodation (norming), inefficient patterns of performance
(performing-I), re-evaluation and transition (reforming), effective performance
(performing-II), and completion of assignments (conforming). The TEAM model
postulates the existence of two distinguishable activity tracks present throughout all
the stages i.e activities that are tied to the specific tasks being performed and activities
devoted to enhance the quality of the interactions, interdependence, co-operation,
etc. ([Link]/wiki/group_development).

We have discussed so far a number of models for group work practice, nevertheless
there exist many more models. Allan Brown (1986) has classified those, even though
arbitrary, based on the major differences in aims. These clusters of models are as
follows:

Intake Models: Brown, Seymour Hankinson, Stephens, Todd and Barcome, are
popular for these models where focus is given on contact initiation or individual
assessment or orientation about agency function. These models are primarily
concerned with the intake process when an individual first engages with an agency,
and not with specific interventions such as the provision of support, achievement
of change or the amelioration of a specific situation.

Guided Group Interaction Models: The guided group interaction approach was
originally developed by Lloyd McCorkle in the late 1940s in the treatment of
military offenders (Harstad, 1976). The basis or central focus of this model is
positive peer culture. Individuals normally learn deviant behaviour, attitudes and
values from the peer groups. Therefore, the present model is used in reverse
sense i.e. it carefully constitutes peer group as a vehicle for changing behaviour
from the anti-social to the law-abiding. The key principle is to mix offenders
with ex-offenders and others in the residential or day care setting with programmes
that have positive peer culture.

Problem-Solving, Task-Centred and Social Skills Model: This group of models

is concerned with solving specific behavioural problems, achieving specific tasks
or developing specific behavioural skills. Every model belongs to this category
does not have exclusively a group approach as it uses a blend of individual, pairs
and group methods. The major emphasis is on co-operation rather than 25
Social Group Work I competition, safe and structured environment, building self-esteem and using positive
reinforcement practice.

Psychotherapeutic, Person-Focused Models: These models are concerned with

the person, his feelings, emotions and relationships. The aim is to strengthen an
individual’s mental health and self-concept. Psychoanalytic group therapy, gestalt
therapy, psychodrama, transactional analysis and so on come under this category
of models. In psychoanalytic group therapy, the therapist interprets the behaviour
of the clients, the content of discussion, looking for patterns that will reveal
intrapsychic conflicts or maladaptive defenses. Gestalt therapy is an existential
and experiential psychotherapy that focuses on here-and-now approach. It enables
an individual to get in touch with immediate problematic experience and emotion,
and work through the conflict. Psychodrama is used to express problems, issues,
concerns, dreams and highest aspirations of person through spontaneous and
dramatice role-play. Experience in action, rather than words, is the touchstone of
this model. Transactional analysis is an integrative approach because it has
elements of psychoanalytic, humanist and cognitive approaches. It emphasizes a
pragmatic path in treating patients or develops models to assist understanding of
why certain treatments work.

Mutual Aid or Self-Help Models: The concept of mutual aid was first elaborated
by Kropotkin (1903), one of the most important evolutionary theorists and socio-
biologists of his time. The Mutual Aid Model of group work practice proposed
by Schwartz (1961) was introduced in the article “The Social Worker in the
Group”. Schwartyz envisioned the group as an “enterprise in mutual aid, an
alliance of individuals who need each other in varying degrees, to work on certain
common problems”. This type of group is largely self-governing and provides
its members with a source of mutual help and support. In India, at present, self-
help model is used very widely in micro credit programmes in order to alleviate
poverty. Alcoholic anonymous group is also example of this type.

There are also a few models based on psychotherapist care such as NEEDS-
ABC Model, Neurolinguistic Model etc. A brief description about these is as
follows:

NEEDS-ABC Model: Tom Caplan has developed this model based on decades
of actual practice in group and family setting. The model emphasizes the theme-
based relational needs behind maladaptive behaviours, rather than the behaviours
themselves. ABC means ‘acquisition and behaviour change’ which may be applicable
to a wide public within the field of psychotherapeutic care of clients engaging in group,
couple and marriage therapy. The present model is an integrated therapeutic approach
that combines observation, elucidation of client and group process, using concepts
also described in cognitive-behavioural, motivational, narrative and emotion-focused
model (caplan, 2008).

Neuro–Linguistic Model: This model is a systemic imaginative method of

psychotherapy with an integrative-cognitive approach. It aims at goal-oriented
work with a person paying particular regard to his/her representation systems,
metaphors and relation matrices. The model helps to position the selectively
good intentions underlying the symptoms of illness and/or dysfunction so that
old fixations about inner and outer unproductive behaviour and beliefs can be
dissociated and sound behaviours and beliefs can be established and integrated.
26
This approach, as a method of personal development and communication training, is Theories and Models in
Social Group Work
also used in other fields: education, counseling, supervision, coaching, management
training and health psychology ([Link]/[Link]).
Check Your Progress II
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Narrate the various stages of Tuckman’s group development model.
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................................................................................................................
2) What are the major concerns of psychotherapeutic person-focused models?
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2.4 LET US SUM UP

We have understood, in this unit, theories and models used in social group work.
Theories are the scientifically acceptable body of facts that help to understand individual
behavior as well as to carry forward the group process. Though this group process
itself is a greatest teacher, group members sometimes feel puzzled and can not set any
direction. It is then that the group worker enters in the scene and helps through his/her
knowledge on theories. With regard to models, there are many classical as well as
contemporary models. The war on poverty and demands of group work in therapeutic
settings during 1960s, 1970s and 1980s has propounded numerous new models in
this field. Therefore, the final consideration in selecting a single model for practice with
groups is very important and the same depends on the competence of the practitioner.
Simply knowing the model is not sufficient competence. Worker must examine, before
selecting any model, whether they possess adequate knowledge and skills to make
maximum use of the same model. Many practitioners feel, in order to resolve this
problem, it is always better to use an eclectic model i.e. multiple models for best
interest of the client system.

2.5 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Barsade, S.G. (2002), ‘The Ripple Effect: Emotional Contagion and Its Influence on
Group Behaviour’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 47, 644-675.
Brandler, S. and Roman, C. (1999), Group Work: Skills and Strategies for Effective
Intervention, New York: Haworth Press, P-8.
Brown, A. (1986), Group Work, England: Gower, P-74 to 80.
Cohen, M.B. and Mullender, A (1999), ‘The Personal in the Political: Exploring the
Group Work Continuum from Individual to Social Change Goals’, Social Work with
Groups, 22(1), pp3-31. 27
Social Group Work I Cole, M.B. (2005), Group Dynamics in Occupational Theory: the Theoretical
Basis and Practice Application of Group Intervention, New Jersey : SLACK
Incorporated, P-33.
Caplan, T (2008), Needs ABC: Acquisition and Behaviour Change Model for
Group Work and Other Psychotherapies, Whiting & Birch Ltd: London.
Friedlander, W.A. (1976), Concepts and Methods of Social Work, Prentice Hall
of India: New Delhi.
Fatout, M. (1992), Models for Change in Social Group Work, New York: Aldine
de Gruyter, P-12-13.
Harstad, C.D. (1976),’Guided Group Interaction: Positive Peer Culture’, Child
and Youth Care Forum, Vol-5, No-2, P-109-120.
Konopka, G. (1963), Social Group Work: A Helping Process, Prentice-Hall:
Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Kropotkin, P. (1903), Mutual aid: A Factor of Evolution,
Indy [Link]: Mclean, Virginia.
Poole, M.S. (1981), ‘Decision Development in Small Groups I: A Comparison
of Two Models’, Communication Monography, 48, 1-24.
Papell, C and Rothman, B. (1966), ‘Social Group Work Models: Possession and
Heritage’, Education for Social Work,2 (Fall), 66-77.
Sullivan et al. (2003), Social Work with Group: Social Justice Through Personal
Community, and Societal Change, New York: Haworth Press, P-67.
Skidmore et al. (1988), Introduction to Social Work, New Jersey: Prentice Hall,
P-84.
Schwartz, W. (1961), ‘The Social Worker in the Group’. In B. Saunders (Ed.),
New Perspectives on Services to Groups: Theory, Organisation, Practice,
National Association of Social Workers: New York, P-7-29.
[Link]/wiki/group_development, [Link]/
[Link]

28
UNIT 3 STAGES/PHASES OF GROUP
DEVELOPMENT

Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Group Development and its Stages
3.3 First Stage: Planning and Forming the Group (Beginning)
3.4 Second Stage: Exploration (Initial Sessions)
3.5 Third Stage: Performing (Action Phase)
3.6 Fourth Stage: Assessment (Evaluation)
3.7 Fifth Stage: Termination (Ending Phase)
3.8 Role of Group Worker in Group Development
3.9 Let Us Sum Up
3.10 Further Readings and References

3.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to make the learner understand the different stages or phases of
group development in the group work process. In group work, the group goes through
various phases to achieve the group goals with the help of the group work practitioner.
In this unit we have tried to delineate our understanding of these stages of growth.
After studying this unit you should be able to:
 Understand the concept of group development
 Describe the important stages of group development
 Delineate the role of professional social worker during the different stages of
group development

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Today, the importance of group work as an effective method of social work intervention
is being increasingly realized. More so when professionals from other fields, such as
Psychology, Psychiatry and Management have also become appreciative of its value.
The need for satisfactory group life is a fundamental need of human beings. All of us
are in search of meaningful relationships in our social milieu, irrespective of our age,
religion, class or caste. The modern day living is characterized by a sense of alienation
and isolation where one feels lonely amidst the sea of humanity. This can be a frustrating
experience, further accentuating our need for a sense of belonging. Social Group
Work fills this vacuum by providing not only the pleasure of association, but also
giving an opportunity to the members to utilize and enhance their capabilities and to
develop themselves.

While Social Group Work, is a method for the group worker, for the members it is a
29
Social Group Work I significant new experience designed to give them an opportunity to come together and
fulfill their needs and desires through a group process. From its inception to its
termination, a group goes through various stages of development, and experiences on
which the members put their own interpretations. While for some it may be the first
opportunity to carry out any responsibility, for others it may be an important means of
giving expression to their needs and for still others it may be a way of development of
some skill.

Let us now understand the concept of group development and its various stages.

3.2 GROUP DEVELOPMENT AND ITS STAGES

What is Group Development?

Group development is a process of the growth and progress of a group towards full
maturity over a period of time with primary focus on the relationships in the group. In
Social Group Work through guided group experience, the group is helped to develop
responsibly and with maturity. From the stage of forming the group, to its termination,
through carefully and well planned programme activities, the group is helped to achieve
its potential. “Regular meetings of the group, a wider interaction among the members,
a free flowing conversation, laughter, general spirit of cooperation and accommodation,
are signs of a positive environment in a group, reflecting a clear sign of group
development” (Siddiqui, 2008) Group development, thus, is an index of the specific
level of growth, task accomplishment and emotional integration of the members which
goes through different stages. Understanding the stages of group development helps
in developing appropriate ways of intervention in the group process so as to bring
about group’s growth and induce behaviours that help in achieving group goals.

Indicators of Group Development

1) Attendance
2) Punctuality
3) Definite meeting time and attendance
4) Development of a formal organization
5) Willingness on the part of the members to undertake initiative and responsibility
6) Increased innovation and motivation
7) Controlled behaviour of the members
8) High level of participation
9) Emergence of leader
10) Shift from ‘I’ and ‘Me’ to ‘We’ and ‘Us’
Stages of Group Development

The achievement of the goals is the objective of any professional encounter; the tasks
are done with a purpose. The Social Group Work process is conceived of as one that
is systematic and proceeds through stages also referred to as phases. A group can
pass through various stages of development; from the initial stage where it may appear
as a mere assembly of individuals, it can go on to become a group with a strong ‘we
feeling’. The stages and the activities associated with it provide structure and direction
30
to the process. The different stages are but a reflection of the process of maturity of Stages/Phases of Group
Development
the group. Theoretically, we may segregate different stages of group development for
conceptual clarity but in reality they are intertwined. Throughout the stages there are
two concerted concerns of the Social Group Worker, namely, building and sustaining
a collaborative relationship and working on the tasks directed at achieving goals. The
tasks and activities chosen reflect the Social Group Worker’s ideas about what is
necessary at different points in time to bring about change.

Different theorists based on their interpretations have given their own models of the
stages of group development as depicted in the chart below:
The Stages of Group Development
_____________________________________________________________________
Bales Tuckman Klein Trecker Garland, Northen and
(1950) (1963) (1972) (1972) Jones and Kurland (2001)
Kolondny
(1976)
________________________________________________________________________
Orientation Forming Orientation Beginning Pre-affiliation Inclusion- Orientation

Evaluation Storming Resistance Emergence power and uncertainty-exploration

of group control
feeling

Decision Norming Negotiation Development Intimacy

making of Bond

Performing Intimacy strong

group differentiation Mutuality and Goal
Achievement

Adjourning Termination Decline in Separation Separation-

Group Termination
Feeling
Ending
Source : Group Work: Theories and practices, H.Y. Siddiqui, 2008
Another author Ken Heap (1985) has described the stages of group work as
comprising of group formation and planning; the first meetings; the working
phase; use of activities and action; and the termination of group. Toseland and
Rivas (1985) have more simply described the stages as planning phase, beginning
phase, middle phase, and ending phase. On the basis of the classification by
different experts we can say that a group can have maximum six stages as
discussed by Trecker or a minimum three stages of development, as explained
by Bales. The various models describe the progressive stages in group
development which may range from three to even six stages. Drawing from the
various models, for our purpose, we have classified the stages as follows:
First stage: Forming the group (Beginning)
Second Stage: Exploration (Initial sessions)
Third Stage: Performing (Action Phase)
Fourth Stage: Assessment (Evaluation)
Fifth Stage: Termination (Separation)
Before we present a discourse on the different stages of group development, we need
31
Social Group Work I to understand that group work as practiced in the Indian context may be at variance
with practice in the western countries. As the idea of joining a group voluntarily for
therapeutic or recreation purposes may be an alien concept to the target population,
the social group worker practicing this method in the Indian settings following the
Western theoretical framework may find it an uphill task. The importance of group
work as a therapeutic method of social work intervention is being gradually realized in
our country. In our discourse on the various stages of development of group, we shall
make a conscious effort not to lose sight of the Indian context of practice.
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What do you understand by the term group development? State the
classification of the phases of group development as given by different
theorists.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

3.3 FIRST STAGE: PLANNING AND FORMING

THE GROUP (BEGINNING)
Social agencies, in conformity with their objectives help people form groups so
as to provide them opportunities for a satisfying group experience. Individuals
join groups to seek avenues of self expression and social creativity besides
satisfying their needs of being loved, wanted and accepted by others. The first
stage of this process comprises efforts of the group worker that primarily focus
on the planning and the forming of the group.

THE BEGINNING

This phase marks the beginning of the process of group development and is also
called the pre-group or pre-affiliation stage by some experts. In India the groups
have to be formed by the group worker in most cases. S/he may form the group
from among the existing clientele of the social welfare agencies/NGO’s or from
among the open community settings. Before forming a group, the group worker
must study the target population along the following points:
 Geographical location
 Age/sex
 Socio-economic background
 Needs
 Interests
 Reasons for joining the group
 Any other relevant details

This information helps the group worker to form the group on some common ground
32
and accordingly determine the group goals. Careful planning should precede the Stages/Phases of Group
Development
formation of the group which includes decision about the target population, needs and
goals, the resources available etc. An accurate understanding and analysis of the needs
of the target population is important at this stage so that there is no gap between the
member’s and the worker’s perception of the felt needs of the group. However, the
process of the study and planning is a continuous one; it enables the group worker to
steer the group through the different stages of development.

The members may have to be convinced to join the group as they may be ignorant of
the usefulness of being a part of a group and may not have had any such experience in
the past. “Groups in India are initially conceived by an organization or welfare agency,
as people themselves generally do not take such initiatives. Both the voluntary and the
government organizations have found working with the group a useful strategy. The
worker in India therefore, has to carry the idea of forming a group for an already
defined objective to the people. S/he has to educate the potential members about the
needs and issues the group will address and how it is likely to benefit them. The
worker generally meets the members for the first time and many members have little
or no experience of working with such groups. The formation stage thus, will require
careful planning. There are two sets of plans that a worker must prepare. The first part
of the planning concerns how the formation of the group will be accomplished, and
second, what issues will arise once the group gets going and how these will be dealt
with.”(Siddiqui, 2008, 98)

The other details that have to be focussed while planning and forming the group are:
1) The size of the group
The decision about the size of the group is dependant on various factors such as
the needs of members, purpose of group, nature of group membership etc. for
instance self help groups may be large in size but therapeutic groups work best
when they are small. Though there is no ideal size, a group size ranging from eight
to fifteen members may be a good size.
2) Composition of the group
Planning about the composition of the group has to be in keeping with its purpose.
Whether it is a self- help group, task group or treatment oriented group, it may
be either homogenous or heterogeneous. Before deciding the nature of
membership, the group worker should familiarize herself with the client group
along the points already mentioned above such as their socio-economic
background etc.
3) Frequency of the sessions and their duration
Though there is no hard and fast rule, frequency of the sessions may be decided
in accordance with the needs and purpose of the group. There should not be too
long gaps between the sessions, lest the group gets disintegrated.
Recreation groups, therapeutic groups, task groups should meet at least once
or twice a week.
4) Time and place of meetings
The place where the group is to meet at the designated time has to be decided in
consultation with the members. The guiding factors are the convenience of the
members, availability and adequacy of space and resources.
33
Social Group Work I 5) Duration of the group
Whether the group will exist for a long or short term may again have to be in
keeping with the needs and goals of the group. The group can be terminated
after achieving its objectives and a tentative time may be earmarked for it.
There should however be an element of flexibility in deciding the time-
frame.
Check Your Progress II
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What are the aspects to be taken into consideration, while forming the
group?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

3.4 SECOND STAGE: EXLORATIONS (INITIAL

SESSIONS)
EXPLORATION
In the initial sessions the group may appear more as a constellation of different
individuals than an organized entity. This stage is usually characterized by a low
group consciousness. There may be shyness, hesitation, indecision and lack of
participation. Some members maybe hyper active, and some may be insecure
and nervous, not having had such an experience in the past. However, this phase
marks the beginning of the development of a feeling of belonging and oneness
among the members. Tuckman has used the term ‘storming’ to explain this process
of exploration. In the initial meetings a semblance of order has to be restored so
as to ensure a free flow of ideas and actions.

This stage involves the following steps:

Orientation And Induction

The initial stage is important as it lays the foundation of the success or failure of
the group work program. The worker should introduce the members to the group
by outlining her/his role and the purposes for which the group has been formed,
the members should be encouraged to speak about themselves, their hopes and
aspirations. In the initial sessions the members have to be inducted into the group with
a certain sensitivity so as to raise their level of comfort and sense of ease. The members
may be unfamiliar with each other and may be interested in finding out about the
agency, the worker, other members and the purpose of the group.

The group worker helps members become part of the group. This does not happen
overnight but is a gradual process as in this process the members may have to give up
some of their individuality as also their biases and prejudices. They may have to exercise
34
more self control and discipline. Some people relate more easily than others, all Stages/Phases of Group
Development
nevertheless, start making efforts to adjust which may not be always easy. Some may
be easily accepted and accept the group, others may take more time. Gradually the
members start speaking the same language as the other members and accept the
group goals and consider them as their own As the individual starts developing a sense
of belonging there may be a change in his/her behaviour patterns.

Preparation of the Profile of the Members

Just as there is a need for the members to know each other, the worker too should
study and observe the members closely. The worker should prepare a profile of
each member giving his/her age, family background, physical characteristics,
habits, interests, level of confidence , any peculiar habits or traits etc. It would
help if this is based on the facts gathered and his/her observations in the initial
sessions. This would not only help her/him understand the group relationship
levels and interaction patterns better but also begin from where the group is.
Further this may help her/him map the development over a period of time,
especially at the stage of evaluation.

Setting Specific Objectives

While there may be larger goals which a group may strive to ultimately achieve,
specific interim goals also need to be explored, which can form the basis of
program planning. Here the worker has to help the group determine the desired
level of behaviour or social change. Although in the first stage the group has
been formed keeping in mind some purpose, It is at this stage that goals have to
be specifically delineated. Here the group worker encourages the active
participation of the group members and helps the group assume the responsibility
to determine the level of change they desire to achieve in their behaviour or
social situation. e.g. kicking up the habit of smoking/ chewing tobacco, giving
up using abusive language.

Objectives are nothing but statements of what the group worker is trying to achieve
through the group work process. They give meaning to the process. “Objectives
serve the same purpose as a compass; they guide the agency and the worker to a
determined destination”. (Trecker , 1955, 57) They should be clear and specific
and later reviewed at the stage of evaluation in terms of their accomplishment.
At this stage there is a need to spell out the specific objectives which delineate
the actual outcomes expected from the group worker’s intervention. For instance
in the case of a group of school dropouts, some of the objectives could be
 To develop an interest in studies by simplifying the methods of teaching and
learning
 To motivate them to resume studies by making them understand the benefits of
formal schooling
 To remove the fear of subjects like maths, etc.

Here the worker should pay attention to the feasibility on one hand and the needs and
aspirations of the members on the other. S/he should focus on the specific benefits the
members are likely to get and refrain from imposing her/his point of view. The objectives
have to be interpreted to the members, and their doubts and queries are to be encouraged.
35
Social Group Work I Developing a Structure

As the group is now ready to settle down, it can be structured at this stage. The
members must now be prepared and encouraged to assume roles and
responsibilities. They are to be told about the expectations of the group from
them in terms of tasks, on the basis of their capabilities and talents. In the Indian
context the members may have to be closely assisted till they learn to assume
responsibilities on their own. Some may need constant help of the group worker
to carry out their roles. The worker at this stage must constantly encourage the
members to use their latent talents and capacities. A functional organization must
emerge at this stage so as to enable the members to assume an active role and
make responsible decisions. “Every group that aspires for independence and
self-determination must arrange its constituent members in such a way that they
can said to be “organized.” The form of organization is in itself of minor
importance ….if a group is to develop and carry out its program, it must have
ways of assigning or delegating responsibility, ways of getting the whole group
to participate in the planning, carrying out, and evaluation of the activities that
make up the program and ways of handling routine relationships with the agency
and other groups.” (Trecker,1955, 150) With the emergence of a formal
organization the group starts giving evidence of its flexibility and maturity. After
the group is geared to assume responsibility, it is ready to move into the next
phase.
Check Your Progress III
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Briefly describe the steps in the exploration stage of group development
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

3.5 THIRD STAGE: PERFORMING

(ACTION PHASE)
ACTION PHASE
After some sessions, the signs of group development start emerging as the group
progresses into its active phase. The focus of this stage is on the provision of
program experiences designed to offer opportunities for adjustment and growth.
The programs may be of a long or short term depending on the immediate and long
term objectives.

This stage is the peak time in the group process as the members start taking the
group seriously. The sessions become regular, the attendance is likely to be high
and so is the involvement and participation of the members. This phase is likely to be
characterized by a flurry of activity as considerable time is devoted to program planning
and implementation, e.g a group of youth in a community, who may have been spending
their leisure time aimlessly are formed into a group. The group worker after observing
36
their talents for singing and acting encourages them to put up a musical drama. The Stages/Phases of Group
Development
group is encouraged and helped to write its own script, compose the songs and
choreograph the dances .Then with the help of the community support the group puts
up the first show and gradually becomes an established theatre group. In the active
phase the scripting, composing followed by continuous frantic rehearsals for the show
may consume the maximum time and efforts of the members. Side by side they may
also be busy mobilizing and utilizing the resources to put up the show. This is but one
example, there may be several others.

During this stage the development gets more pronounced and may be reflected in
high attendance, regular meetings, and members taking more responsibility. More and
more responsibility is transferred by the worker to the group. The group starts surging
ahead; setting its programs, moving constantly to its destination. The accent is now on
‘we’ and ‘us’. The members get comfortable with each other, anxiety declines,
leadership emerges, and members start taking initiative and are ready to assume
leadership roles and responsibilities. They may be more forthcoming with their talents
and more ready to take on challenging and complex programs. This is the most active
phase of the group work process and spans over a major part of the working life of
the group. The group may now well be on its way to achieving its goals. Planning and
development of the program, its execution and monitoring are the defining features of
this stage.

Program Planning and Execution

Program is a series of activities based on the discovery of interests and needs of the
members and an important component of Social Group Work process; the way it is
planned even more important. It may range from art and craft to music, dance, social
events to picnics excursions. At this stage the program interests are likely to emerge
from within the group. The members who may be initially be at a loss from where to
begin must now be encouraged to take over. The members are stimulated to discover
and use their own resources. The program planning and development process by
itself is an important tool in helping the group to realize its potential

“Program should evolve from simple to more complex, with movement coming as a
result of group growth in ability and readiness. Movement from initially ‘personal’ to
‘social’ or ‘community concerns’ should be an ultimate objective if our programs are
to have greater social significance” (Trecker, 1955, 162)

Task Accomplishment
“When the group begins to show signs of readiness to move ahead, the worker should
help the members realize their wishes for different and more demanding experiences.
When group members begin to express desires to correct inadequacies and improve
their work, they have reached an advanced point in their development. Programs that
may have been self-centered shift in emphasis to the larger agency and community
concerns. Specialized interests may be revealed, and there may be an interest in a
variety of small group activities within the larger group. Here the worker is called upon
to use his knowledge of agency and community resources. His role becomes that of
an interpreter to the group, especially in regard to future possibilities. Evaluation
occupies a larger share of time as the group becomes confident of its capacities”
(Trecker, 1955)

As the group strives to accomplish its goals and related tasks, it may face many barriers
37
Social Group Work I which may obstruct change. Besides members’ own anxieties and fears, there may be
dysfunctional behaviours or dysfunctional processes within the group that may impede
progress and pose barriers to goal accomplishment. Non-availability or restrictive
access to resources or services may require the group worker to assume the role of a
mediator or advocate.

Monitoring Progress

The group worker at this stage steps down and allows the group to take over. However
s/he needs to constantly monitor and keep a track of the ways the program is being
conducted. As work towards the group goals gathers momentum it is important to
monitor the progress on a regular basis. The program can be monitored on the basis
of specific indicators such as interaction patterns, self improvement, emotional
integration with the group, leadership and communication skills etc. Based on the
information gathered, programs can be modified and consolidated. If an intervention
or program is not producing the desired effect, the worker after analyzing reasons can
negotiate a different approach or strategy.
Check Your Progress IV
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Highlight the characteristic features of the action phase in the group
development process.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

3.6 FOURTH STAGE: ASSESSMENT

(EVALUATION)
EVALUATION

After the action phase is over, the group should be ready to evaluate the outcome of
its efforts in a free, frank and objective manner. “Evaluation is that part of Social
Group Work in which the worker attempts to measure the quality of a group’s
experience in relation to the objectives and functions of the agency. Evaluation may
centre upon individual growth, program content or worker performance because all
these aspects tend to influence the general achievement of the group.”(Trecker, 1955
) Evaluation is continuously done during the group work process, but, after the group
activities are over, before the termination phase; a comprehensive assessment of the
entire experience is a must. This helps in improving subsequent group work experiences
on the basis of the lessons learnt; a guide to future.

If you recall, during the exploration phase a profile of the members was prepared; at
this stage a comprehensive summary report of each member and group as a whole,
reflecting the individual and overall level of development and achievements is to be
prepared. The overall purpose and objectives of the experience should not be lost
38 sight of while making this assessment.
Imperatives of Evaluation Stages/Phases of Group
Development
Evaluation helps the agency and worker to reorganize their practice and modify their
objectives in the light of the outcome findings of evaluation. To make the process of
evaluation a positive and conclusive exercise and in order to make an unbiased,
objective evaluation it is imperative that there exist certain predetermined indicators
on the basis of which the assessment can be done.

Indicators

To determine these indicators the following aspects may be taken into consideration,
namely:

1) Individual growth

From the members’ perspective, evaluation presents an opportunity to find out the
outcome of their actions from the beginning to the end of the process. It aids the
process of development and helps in assessing some of the following aspects:
 The level of growth in each member in terms of confidence, decision making, etc.
 The extent of the use of the opportunities provided to the members for the
expression of their creativity and talents
 The level of their participation and involvement in the group programs
 The development of ‘we feeling’ and a sense of belonging
 Resolution of disabling conflicts and development of capacity to foster
cooperation and sharing
 Development of a social consciousness and the ability to take up
responsibility and leadership in the community.
 Enhancement of communication, organizational and interaction skills

2) Worker performance
Evaluation presents to the group worker a mirror of his/her professional
competence or incompetence as the case may be. The worker can be evaluated along
the following points:
 Ability to identify indicators for judging the growth and development of the group
 Effectiveness in planning and conducting the group sessions
 Extent of success in helping the group achieve its objectives and goals
 Mistakes and shortcomings
 Ability to use professional knowledge and skills.

3) Agency’s purpose
Evaluation gives the agency the information it needs to maintain the quality of its services
and bring about the improvements in its policies and programs along the following
lines:
39
Social Group Work I  Lay down objective standards for the appraisal of its personnel
 Ensure conditions under which effective group work can be done
 Improve its organizational and administrative procedures
 Reformulate objectives for groups and agency in line with its needs
 Review the program content and method

Record keeping

Another imperative of evaluation is proper record keeping. Carefully maintained

records are a great aid to the evaluation process. Records are integral to the
entire group work process but are most useful at the point of evaluation. The
worker should maintain detailed records of each member and activity. Well
maintained records help to objectively assess the growth of the members; their
strengths and shortcomings. Among other things, it helps the worker understand
which strategies worked and which did not. According to Trecker, it is doubtful
whether evaluation of the program, individual growth or worker performance
can be satisfactorily made without records. Evaluation is a kind of research or
fact finding which involves data collection and data analysis. The source of data
could be the records or progress reports made by the worker, any task files
maintained by the members, other agency personnel, feedback- verbal or written
of the members, their family members, video tapes etc. For this s/he should
develop some formats for recording the happenings in the group.

Although partial judgments can be made on the basis of memory, thorough

evaluation is possible only if adequate records have been kept. The worker at
this stage must go back to her records and prepare an analysis and summary. S/
he should not only review the growth and development of the group but also his/
her role and relationship with the group; and how well s/he understood the
changing interests and evolving needs of the members. Though not very popular
in India, attitudinal and personality measurement scales to measure the changes
in the member’s behaviour, knowledge and attitudes could be put to effective
use to make the assessment more authentic and scientific.

Feedback

Though some kind of feed back at the end of each session may be taken, a detailed
exercise is usually done at this stage. Effective use of praise and constructive
criticism are the defining features of the feedback exercise. The group worker
can provide her feedback to the members on various aspects such as participation,
program development and implementation, leadership, teamwork, how well the
members adhered to and worked for the achievement of the group objectives
etc. The worker too should solicit feedback regarding how her/his behaviour
affected the process S/he must welcome criticism and respond to it positively as
it illuminates the pathway to growth and makes the worker aware of her/his
strengths and weaknesses. The resultant feedback helps the group worker to be more
aware of their positives and negatives which they must keep in mind for future. The
members should be also trained by the group worker in giving and receiving feedback.
 Positive feedback should be given first
40
 It should be specific Stages/Phases of Group
Development
 Criticisms should be given as a suggestive alternative
 Initially the members may be encouraged to give a written feedback
 The worker may prepare some formats for the purpose.

Check Your Progress V

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Analyze the main indicators for evaluating a group.
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3.7 FIFTH STAGE: TERMINATION

(ENDING PHASE)

TERMINATION

There comes a time/point in the life of every group when it comes to an end,
which could be a positive or negative experience as the case may be. The group
is deemed to be terminated on a positive note, when it is said to have achieved its
goals and the group worker has ensured its smooth closure through a proper
process. Sometimes the groups may have to close on a negative note, when the
members drop out prematurely; fail to develop strong relationships; the
relationships are marked by bitter conflicts or the worker cannot continue with
the group any longer. When the Group worker leaves the group for whatever
reason, the group may not sustain for long.

Should the date of termination be set in the beginning? Some experts are of the
view that a termination date should be announced at the outset so that the members
know the time at their disposal to achieve their objectives. The duration should
however be long enough for the group to develop and allow behavioural change.
The group should review its progress from time to time and accordingly take
decisions for the future course of action.

Just as the group worker has done in the previous stages of development; at this
stage she has to ensure that the group is terminated in a proper way. “Despite
highly satisfactory experiences, groups sometimes reach a period in their natural
life when interests diminish and decline is noticeable. The group seems to have
“served its time” attendance falls off; members withdraw and become related to other
groups…….this is a period which calls for careful thinking and analysis on the part of
the worker . The agency…….should operate as a helpful agent for the proper closing
of the group which has fulfilled its function in the lives of the members. By arranging
satisfying terminal experiences with groups it is possible to make the conclusion of
41
Social Group Work I group life a vestibule for further group experience. Those members who wish to continue
may be helped to form a new group” (Trecker, 1955)

Ending the Group

The group has to end in a planned manner. Members may react differently to the
termination of the group. The worker has to keep the group informed about the ending
time and should not break the news suddenly. While nothing much may be done when
the group comes to an end abruptly, in other cases the ending of the group can be
carried out in a planned way.

The last Sessions

Towards the end of the social group work process the worker has to help the members
come to terms with the fact that there may be no more regular meetings and guide
them how to face the challenge of filling up the vacuum that the termination might
create.

The worker has to prepare the group

 For the termination stage
 Share with the group the final evaluation.
 Analyze how far they were successful in accomplishing some of the goals and
failed to achieve others, as the case may be.
 give the members an opportunity to express their happiness, anxiety, fears, good/
bad experiences, talk about their accomplishments
 Discuss their future plans

“Developing leadership among the group members, capacity building of members and
developing systems to carry on the functioning of the group can make the termination
smooth” (Siddiqui,2008)

Check Your Progress VI

Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1) What are the things to be kept in mind by the social group worker while
terminating the group?
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42
 Stages/Phases of Group
3.8 ROLE OF GROUP WORKER IN GROUP Development

DEVELOPMENT
Factors Affecting Group Development
The development of the group is influenced by a variety of factors, depending on
which groups develop at varying pace. This explains why some groups organize
very well and are able to achieve their goals without facing many hurdles, while
others fail to accomplish their tasks and achieve their goals. We have listed some
such factors as examples, which we do not propose to discuss in detail as they
are already explained under one heading or the other in the block.
1) Group structure
2) Communication and interaction patterns
3) group goals
4) expectations from the group
5) leadership
6) group norms and culture
7) group discipline
8) The role played by the group worker

Our primary focus here is on one important ingredient that ensures the
development of the group through the successive stages, namely the role played
by the Social Group Worker at each stage.

ROLE OF GROUP WORKER

The role of the worker is very important and varies at each stage of development,
the bottom line being that the worker has to understand the level of the group at
each stage and proceed at the pace of the group. For this s/he must study and
analyze to understand where the members are in their development. The worker
plays a variety of roles, sometimes as an enabler, helper, guide and facilitator,
sometimes as a trouble shooter, mediator and educator and at other times as an
advocate or a leader. S/he provides direction to the group members in planning
the group activities and then executing them. S/he enables the members to make choices
and helps them to become self-directing as early as possible. Through all stages the
worker has to develop and exhibit a professional behaviour.

It is not possible to have a standard blue print of the role and tasks of a group worker
as it is affected by a variety of factors. Trecker (1955) rightly said that the worker’s
role will vary with different groups as the situations operating within groups are so
different, that the worker has to first understand the group and the circumstances
surrounding it before attempting to define the specific aspects of his job with it.

In the Initial Phase

At the initial stage the group worker helps the members build a sense of belonging,
which is an emotional experience. The skill and understanding in initiating in them a
sense of belonging is a crucial task of the worker. She has to foster those conditions 43
Social Group Work I under which this belongingness is fostered. For this s/he needs to accept as well as get
acceptance from the group. “ the greatest single element in the beginning stages of
work with the group is the worker’s ability to accept the group as it is, with both
strengths and limitations, positives and negatives…… In the beginning the worker
should place emphasis on warmth and friendliness rather than on group organization
or planning.” (Trecker, 1955, 31)

With the sense of belonging comes a feeling of pride, warmth, affection, sharing and
commitment; a sense of respect for other members as well as a respect for group
objectives. Real belonging builds up a sense of companionship and accelerates the
psychological process of growth in human relations. The group may go through various
stages of belonging. All members may not experience the same intensity of belonging
especially at the early stages. Initial stages may need more worker time as well as an
active role on her/his part.

In the initial phase, where exploration is central, the Social Group Work needs to
focus her attention on the following:
1) Pay attention to the orientation and induction and give the members a clear idea
of what the agency stands for.
2) spend time in trying to gain information about each member and the needs of
each.
3) helps the group determine its objectives and goals
4) try to relate the purpose of the group to the overall purpose of the agency.
5) look for ways to strengthen the ties among the members.

The group worker can make the following efforts at this stage, among others:
1) establish rapport
2) help the members to get familiar with each other by organizing ice breaking sessions
3) take up simple activities with the object of helping the members open up and start
talking and sharing
4) if the members already know each other, inform them about the purpose of the
group
5) help the members deal with their anxieties, apprehensions or misconceptions, if
any
6) explain the basic rules to be followed during the group activities.

In the Middle Phase

Subsequently the worker’s responsibility is to help the group create a type of functional
organization that will make possible the sort of program the group wishes to conduct.
S/he does not structure the group but helps it to structure itself; the bottom-line is to
keep the structure as simple as possible. The worker while helping the individuals in
groups to create and maintain satisfying constructive relationships should encourage
role allocations on the basis of merit.

44
Program is an important tool in the hands of the worker and at this stage, the worker Stages/Phases of Group
Development
has the task of helping the group to plan, develop and execute the program. Her/his
main role in program development is to consciously stimulate and guide the process of
interaction for individual and group development. S/he helps the group to understand
its capacities and limitations and guides the interaction in relation to the process of
group development. S/he not only helps to stimulate the group to action but also helps
it to discover and use the agency and community resources and those within the group.
S/he constantly encourages the members to take initiatives in performing the group
tasks and develop leadership in the group by identifying the potential leaders and
creating opportunities for them to take up leadership roles. The group worker may at
this stage be called upon to address the power issues that arise in the group. Some
members may try to dominate and control the group which may not just lead to conflict
and groupism albeit generate hostility among the members and even towards the group
worker. The worker has to deftly resolve the power issues which s/he can do by
encouraging and developing a sense of co-peration, partnership and a mutual respect
for each other. The worker will be especially helpful in working with the leadership
that has grown out of the group.

In the active stage of group development the worker should modify her role. Rather
than being active she must now allow the members to assume responsibility. Remaining
in the background, her primary task should be to monitor the changes and progress
that are taking place in the group. S/he will guard against too rapid progression and
ensure that the groups do not take on more than they are prepared to handle
successfully. During this phase, programmes of longer duration and more involved
organization may be encouraged

In the Last Phase

The role at the final stage begins with reviewing the group experiences and dealing
with feelings of separation. It is important that the worker plans for this phase
and handles it skillfully and sensitively. The manner in which group process is
concluded will strongly influence how the members continue to maintain the
progress they have achieved. The worker should develop proper formats for
recording all the happenings in the group. Records have both short term and
long term goals and usage. An important task of the Social Group Worker is to
maintain the records with keen observation and sensitivity. S/he should maintain full
records of the behaviour of the members and their responses and in doing so be
careful in the selection, organization of the material, and analyze and summarize from
time to time.

The last phase calls upon the worker to primarily assess whether individual and group
goals have been successfully obtained and plan for the maintenance of change and
continued growth after termination.

Though the actual write up and interpretation and utilization of the records is done at
different stages of development, it assumes special significance in the concluding stages.
Records are most useful at the point of evaluation and termination as realistic judgments
cannot be made on the basis of memory. The worker at this stage has to make realistic
evaluation of the program, individual growth and how her/his role has changed and
evolved through the various stages of group development. S/he has to review the
entire process and understand all that has happened in the group and retrace the role
played by her/him in bringing about the group development. S/he has the crucial task
45
Social Group Work I of carefully and objectively evaluating the outcomes of interventions and share this
information with the group; helping them to assess their achievements and failures.
This review is particularly important if the group is terminating or being handed over to
a new worker. If the group decides to end, the worker should ensure a smooth
termination and if it decides to continue sans the worker, s/he can continue to monitor
the functioning of the group and keep the contact alive.

In the last phase the worker should create situations within the group where the members
can act out the changed behaviours independently. This helps the group to come to
terms with the scenario where the group support may be no longer available. Successful
termination involves preparing the members adequately for separation from the group
and enhancing the transition of the members from being dependant on the group to
being on their own.

Check Your Progress VII

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Write a brief essay on the role of the Social Group Worker through the various
stages of group development.
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3.9 LET US SUM UP

Social Group Work, whereas a method for the group worker, is a significant new
experience for the members, designed to give them an opportunity to come
together and fulfill their needs and desires through a group process. In Social
Group Work through guided group experience, the group is helped to develop
responsibly and with maturity. From the stage of forming the group to its termination,
through carefully and well planned programmes, the group is helped to achieve its
potential. The stages and the activities associated with it provide structure and direction
to the process. Theoretically we may segregate different stages of group development
for conceptual clarity but in reality these stages are intertwined with each other.

On the basis of the classification by different experts we can say that a group can have
maximum six stages as discussed by Trecker or a minimum three stages of development,
as explained by Bales. We have discussed the stages as follows:

First stage: Forming the group (Beginning)

Second Stage: Exploration (Initial sessions)

Third Stage: Performing (Action Phase)

Fourth Stage: Assessment (Evaluation)

Fifth Stage: Termination (Ending phase)

46
Before forming a group the group worker must study the target population. Stages/Phases of Group
Development
The details that have to be focused while planning and forming the group are the size
of the group, its composition, frequency of the sessions and their duration time and
place of meetings and duration of the group. The exploration stage involves the following
steps, namely orientation and induction; Preparation of the profile of the members;
setting specific objectives; developing a structure. Planning and development of the
program, its execution and monitoring are the defining features of the performing stage
which is the most active phase. After the action phase is over, the group is ready to
evaluate the outcome of its efforts in a free, frank and objective manner. In the last
sessions the worker prepares the group for the termination stage. Here s/he shares the
final evaluation with the group and analyzes how far they were successful in
accomplishing some of the goals and failed to achieve others, as the case may be. The
role of the worker varies at each stage of development, the bottom line being that the
worker has to understand the level of the group at each stage and proceed at the pace
of the group.

Though the importance of group work as a therapeutic method of social work

intervention is being gradually realized in our country, the fact remains that it is
still primarily practiced by the students of social work as a part of their field
work training and thereafter the scope of using this method is generally limited.
In India the groups have to be formed by the group worker in most cases. S/he
may form the group from among the existing clientele of the social welfare
agencies/NGO’s or from among the open community settings.

3.10 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Garvin, Charles D. et al (eds.) (2008) Handbook of Social Work With Groups, Rawat
Publications, New Delhi.

Konopka Gisela. (1963) Social Group Work: A Helping Process, Englewood Cliffs ,
N.J. Prentice Hall

Siddiqui, H.Y. (2008) Group Work: Theories and Practices, Rawat Publications, New
Delhi.

Trecker, Harleigh B. (1955) Social Group Work- Principles and Practices, New York:
Association Press

Wilson, Gertrude and Gladys Ryland. (1949) Social Group Work Practice. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Co.

47
 UNIT 4 PROCESS OF GROUP FORMATION
Contents
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Group Formation
4.3 Planning Group Formation in Social Group Work
4.4 Process of Group Formation – Tasks Undertaken by the Social Group Worker
4.5 Practice Principles: Guidelines for Group Formation
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Further Readings and References

4.0 OBJECTIVES
For decades, group formation has been a subject of study in many domains. Club
theory from economics, theories of motivation and social integration from psychology,
and theories of coalition formation and bargaining from political science and psychology-
all have given due importance to processes of group- formation, resources that the
members bring to their groups, and the impact of group’s composition on group’s
performance. In learning, teachers form groups of students for different types of
collaborative activities. Organizations researchers have struggled to understand the
factors that can lead to group effectiveness. Drawing on work in social psychology,
sociology, and organizational behavior, theorists have developed numerous models of
group performance. Social Group Work Practice constitutes use of groups to help
people. Groups’ effectiveness is a necessary concomitant to helping people through
group experience. Yet it is clearly held that groups must ‘form’ before they can act. In
the following discussion, you will understand the ‘process of group formation’ and
appreciate its importance in social group work practice.
At the end of this unit, you will be able to learn:
 the components and processes of group formation;
 group formation processes involved in different types of groups; and
 to effectively plan the use of groups while applying social group work method

4.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already learnt about nature of groups and the meaning of group dynamics.
You may recall that groups have a life span of their own, i.e. they come into being; go
through different phases of development including conflicts, threats of disintegration,
and / or achievement of cohesiveness; and then come to an end. Studies on group
work practice have demonstrated that group experiences influence considerably the
persons constituting its membership and in a significant manner. A professional Social
Worker using group as a vehicle to help people has, therefore, to be very careful
whether use of group as a medium of help is clearly indicated. Social Work is defined

48
as a ‘planned’ change activity. Planning, therefore, is crucial element of all social work Process of Group
Formation
interventions, including social group work.
The discussion on the stages of development through which a group passes highlights
the importance of the processes that a group worker has to engage in before the
persons joining a group ever come together. Planning and actions that a social group
worker undertakes at the pre-group stage have a far reaching impact on the success
of the group, in terms of the cohesiveness a group achieves; in the context of its
performance in achieving group goals; or with reference to the satisfaction its members
experience. In fact, group formation is the starting-point of all group development and
performance.

4.2 GROUP FORMATION

An Assembly of the Elements
“Assembly is the deliberate combination of parts to form an envisioned whole,
according to an implicit or explicit plan or plans. The primary challenge of assembly is
…….to select and combine people and resources keeping in mind how different
combinations of elements with different arrays of attributes are likely to fit together.”
(Arrow, et al, 2000)
Group formation can be viewed as resulting from the ‘planned assembly of elements’
plus dynamics emerging from the process of this collection. The most important
“elements” in a group are people with their resources, and intentions. The other elements
are external and contextual.
Before we move forward, let us recall some descriptions of a group. Group is a
collection or assemblage of persons having common characteristics, interests, goals,
or objectives; two or more persons who are interacting with one another in such a
manner that each person influences and is influenced by the other. They both recognise
themselves as a group and are seen by other people as a group.
The formation of a group is driven in part by the motivated action of their members.
The structure of new groups is also determined in part by constraints, opportunities
and demands in the contexts in which the groups are situated. People who are not
group members are often instrumental in forming new groups. External and internal
forces contribute to both assembly and dynamic patterns emerging due to the
transformation of people, resources, and intentions in the context of the whole.
Group formation is not a single process with minor variations. Distinctly different
sequences of events can result in the formation of new and different groups. Cartwright
& Zander (1968) identified three distinct circumstances under which groups come
into being:

 Deliberate formation - formed by one or more people in order to accomplish

some objective.

 Spontaneous formation - Formation of the group is based on voluntary interpersonal

choices. The group is formed because people expect to derive satisfaction from
associating together, for example, friendship groups, gangs and professional groups.

 External designation - formed because they (individuals) are treated in a

homogeneous manner by other people. These external designations can lead to
the deliberate formation of groups. 49
Social Group Work I In ‘deliberately formed’ or ‘concocted’ groups, agents external to the group deliberately
assign people to groups and typically designate the group’s purpose as well. Many
work groups, problem-solving groups, therapy groups, social action groups, and
advocacy/ mediating groups; and the vast majority of groups in Social Psychology,
and groups formed for educational purposes fall in this category.

Besides spontaneous groups mentioned above are circumstantial groups, where events
throw people together and give them a reason to interact and form groups for collective
action. In self-organised groups, a new collective arises out of interaction amongst a
sub-set of people in a larger social setting. These people are not actively trying to form
a group, it just happens. High levels of inter- member coordination because of
interpersonal interaction prior to group formation influences this.

Factors Affecting Group Formation

Many factors come into play in the creation of groups. According to Tosi, Rizzo and
Carroll (1986) important variables which influence group formation include:

 Personal characteristics, which include shared beliefs, values, attitudes, security

needs and affiliation needs.

 Interests and goals in common.

 Influence, since a group can exert more power and influence to get proper
attention and action.

 Opportunity for interaction, which helps in developing affinities and relationships.

 Other factors are similar functional departments, cooperative physical activities,

intellectual pursuits, emotional needs or protection, and attention and friendship

Wilson and Ryland (1949), highlighting factors which needed to be kept in mind while
forming groups said, “Every social worker who works with groups need to be aware
of such factors such as – the size of the group; the setting-both agency and community,
in which the group is meeting; the personality and health of the members, their cultural,
social, and economic backgrounds; and the relationship of this group to other groups
in the agency and the community. Factors of likeness and difference – religious, ethnic,
political, economic, social class, and generation – play a large role in even those
groups that are smallest in numbers and youngest in point of members’ ages.” (p. 36)

In nutshell, three main factors which influence group formation and subsequent group
development and performance are individual- group – society, that is, individual and
group goals; resources, expectations and motivations of individual members; group
structure including composition and size (internal factors); environment and resources
of agency, socio-economic conditions, social context of groups (external factors).

External and internal forces, planned assembly, and emergent processes play a part in
the formation of all groups. However, the balance of forces that shape their formation
differs markedly across groups.

Theories of Group Formation

A number of authors and researchers have put forth different theories and perspectives
50 to explain why and how people come together to form groups. An understanding of
these perspectives is useful while matching the purpose of the group with prospective Process of Group
Formation
membership.

Researchers have yet to develop a comprehensive theory to explain how and why
groups form, but there are two perspectives that offer some answers: functional
perspective suggests that groups form because they serve a useful function or fulfill a
need for their individual members. The interpersonal attraction perspective suggests
that groups form because its members like one another and seek to spend time together.
(Cottam, et al 2004, p 66-68)

Functional Perspective states that groups are formed to fulfill survival needs, including
feeding, defense, nurturance, and reproduction; psychological needs like need for
affiliation; need for power – need to control others. According to FIRO (Fundamental
Interpersonal Relations Orientation) given by Schultz (1958), joining a group can fulfill
three basic needs – inclusion (desire to be part of a group); control (the need to
organize an aspect of the group); and affection (the desire to establish positive relations
with others).

Another category of needs that can often be served well by groups is informational
needs. People often have a need to determine if their own view points are correct and
accurate. This perspective suggests that people join groups to better understand social
reality.

Groups can also meet people’s interpersonal needs. Many groups can provide social
support, giving emotional sustenance, advice, and valuable feedback. Social support
can be a valuable function of groups – protect us from harmful effects of stress; protect
us from being lonely.

Finally, groups can fulfill important collective needs – groups can be more productive
and efficient than an individual working alone, that is, by pooling the efforts of multiple
people. Some of the collective goals sought by groups include engaging in the performing
arts; enriching the leisure time of its members; changing the opinions of the persons
outside the group; and making routine individual tasks more tolerable.

Interpersonal Attraction Perspective

Sometimes, groups form because individuals discover that they like each other and
want to spend more time together. Many factors that influence our liking of another
include the following:
 We tend to be attracted to those who are most similar to us in attitudes, beliefs,
socio-economic status, physical appearance and so on.
 We tend to form relationship with those who are physically closer to us - those
living next door, those we sit next to in class, and those we work with closely.
 We like people who like us
 We are attracted to people who are physically attractive.

Within the twin perspectives mentioned above various theories have been developed
to explain why people form groups. One of the most fundamental theories of group
formation is propinquity or proximity which asserts that people tend to affiliate with
one another because of spatial or geographical closeness. Another comprehensive
theory of group formation is the social systems theory which states that individuals
51
Social Group Work I tend to interact in a group to solve problems, reduce tension, attain goals, and achieve
balance. Still another theory of group formation is the balance theory that asserts that
individuals are attracted to one another because of their identical attitudes towards
some common objects and goals. Attempts are made to maintain a symmetrical balance
between the attraction and the common attitudes.

The exchange theory, which is based upon rewards-costs results of interaction, also
deserves attention. A minimum positive level (i.e. rewards exceeding costs) of a result
must be maintained so that attraction occurs. Here, rewards from interaction satisfy
needs while costs cause tension. (Dwivedi 2001, p.265-269)

There are two other theories that assert that homogeneity has primacy in forming of
groups. Research on both similarity-attraction theory and self-categorization theory
suggests that people are likely to be attracted more to those who are similar on
demographic characteristics such as race, age, and gender. Thus, it has been suggested
that self-organized groups will tend to be homogeneous.
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1) Why is the process of group formation important in Social Group Work?
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2) What do you understand by the term ‘group formation’?
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3) Describe different factors that influence group formation.
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4) Explain briefly major theories and perspectives which highlight the reasons
people join groups.
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 Process of Group
4.3 PLANNING GROUP FORMATION IN SOCIAL Formation

GROUP WORK
Group workers form groups frequently in social agencies, court services, clinics,
hospitals and schools. Groups may be formed around specific symptoms (epilepsy,
bed-wetting); certain behaviours (groups of hyperactive or withdrawn children);
or specific forms of treatment (patients undergoing by-pass surgery). Groups
may be formed around common concerns of people for others: parents seeking
or needing help with problems of their children; relatives trying to understand
their mentally sick spouses, parents or children; citizens working on specific
community problems such as housing, playgrounds, better schools or health
facilities, sanitation or provision of other civic amenities. (Konopka, 1972; p.42)
Support or “self-help” groups are formed by people who share common concerns.
The groups may be participant-initiated or sponsored by a health care institution,
social services agency or nonprofit organization.

Various definitions of social group work highlight the fact that it is a purposeful
activity; it is planned; and it covers within its purview individuals, groups, group
worker, social agency and the community in which the group and social agency
operate.

Primary purposes of social group work include “helping individuals with their
social functioning” (Konopka, 1963) as also providing a context in which
individuals help each other; it aims at helping groups as well as individuals; and
it can enable individuals and groups to influence and change personal, group,
organizational and community problems. (Brown, 1986)

Planning a Group

All social work activity is a planned and purposeful. Very often, in a rush to get
a group going, adequate attention is not given to planning. As stated earlier, a
thorough planning is essential for the success of a social work group. According to
Northen and Kurland (2001, p.109-111) planning comprises the ‘thinking, preparation,
decision making, and actions of the social worker prior to the first meeting of a group’.
Within the social and agency contexts of service, the following interrelated components
of planning need to be considered for the formation of the group:
1) Need – what are the problems, issues and areas of concern of the prospective
group members
2) Purpose – Purpose flows out of the previous component of Need. What ends
and objectives will the group pursue collectively? What are the goals of the group
members individually?
3) Composition - How many members will there be in the group? What are important
points of similarities and differences between them?
4) Structure – Specific arrangements to facilitate the conduct of the group, especially
in terms of time and place.
5) Content – What will actually take place in the group?
6) Pre-group contact
53
Social Group Work I If the group membership is predetermined, the process starts from composition, for
example, all female students studying in a particular class of a school or an entire floor
of a residential institution. The worker then tries to ascertain the needs, capabilities
and motivations of the persons mandated to be in the group; determines the purpose,
structure, and content and engages in pre-group contacts.

Components of Purpose and Composition listed above are explained further.

Purpose: There is need to find the best fit among different perceptions of purpose of
the proposed group – the purpose envisaged by the agency, the group worker, the
individual member and the group as a whole. Purpose defines the type of the proposed
group (Northen and Kurland, 2001, p.126):
a) Socialization and growth-oriented groups- to develop members’ competence in
area of common need, to enhance personal growth and to cope with challenges
of developmental tasks;
b) Support and self-help groups: to provide peer support and mutual aid in relieving
stress related to difficult life situation, to fight discrimination and enhance self-
esteem when persons are stigmatized as a result of other persons’ lack of
understanding or prejudice concerning their ethnicity, situation, illness, or behaviour.
c) Task groups, teams and social action groups: to accomplish a particular task.
The boundaries of purpose in Growth-oriented and task groups may often
get blurred overtime.

Composition: Composition refers to the number and characteristics of both

members and the worker who will participate in the group. An understanding of
need and a tentative formulation of purpose are key determinants of composition.
(Malekoff, 2004, p.70)

A widely accepted principle of composition is that the group should be similar

(homogenous) enough to ensure commonality of need / interest and compatibility but
disparate (heterogeneous) enough to ensure that members will contribute to each
other’s benefit. Referring to number of studies, Benson (1987, p.23) states that a
group is more effective if members have similar descriptive attributes (age, caste,
gender, residence or geographical proximity, marital status, disability or difficult social
situation, occupation or socio-economic status, etc.) as this encourages cohesion,
interactiveness and compatibility. On the other hand, different behavioural attributes
(ability to communicate, motivational levels, ability to relate to others, degree of
disturbance etc.) will be useful to the group in fostering interest and responsiveness.
Knowledge of interests (assumed, expressed or implicit), needs, motivations and
aspirations and their social milieu helps worker to make reliable assessment of potential
members to anticipate members’ behaviour and responses in the proposed group.

In the therapy groups, extensive formal intake interviews are required to identify the
members likely to benefit most from the proposed group.

Decisions to be taken

Much before the group is brought into existence or formed and the method of group
work applied, the professional social worker has to find answers to some important
questions and take certain decisions.

54
1) What are the aims, mission and programmes of the social agency or any other Process of Group
Formation
auspices within which social worker is operating?
2) Who constitute the target groups of the social agency?
3) Is group work the best way to help the target group? Can individuals better be
helped through use of case work? Are there some needs, problems or concerns
which are shared by a number of people for whom some common aim can be
identified? Is the group likely to be a useful and efficient device for helping the
target population? To decide to use groups because it is comparatively economical
(vis-à-vis case work) is a mistaken notion. Group work has its own demands on
the worker and the members which require serious consideration.
4) Is using groups to help people feasible in terms of required resources in terms of
time, space, equipment, finances or skills, necessary support and social
environment? What are the likely costs and benefits of joining the group for the
prospective members and for those outside the group?
5) Since usually the professional social workers are not trained in the use of specific
methods of social work (especially in generic courses), the worker planning to
form the group needs to ascertain his / her own expertise and comfort level in
working with groups.
6) What is the specific purpose of the group under consideration? Who decides the
purpose for the group – the agency’s service delivery system, the worker’s
perception or judgment, some social group or an individual in the community?
7) What benefits can the worker hope to procure for the persons drawn from the
target population? The purpose of the group may develop from the client group
of the social agency or from the agency’s decision itself.
8) Who are the prospective members of the group? How will they be selected and
enlisted in the group?
9) Are you acquainted with the population group from where the members will be
drawn? Often, while working in a community, a residential institution, hospital or
school, the worker may be familiar to the persons in the target group. However,
the decision to form a group will require deeper insight into potential members’
personal characteristics and their capacity to benefit from group experiences.

10) Will the selection of the members be on the basis of -

 self-selection where individuals are free to come together on their own, such
groups tending to be of people known to each other, having affinity in some
area of common interest.

 the worker deliberately selects prospective members according to their

interest, skill, need, problem or concern keeping also in mind the purpose of
the proposed group;

 membership is mandated by some authority as in the case of delinquents /

probationers mandated by the Courts; or the Principal of a school directing
students engaged in indiscipline to report in a group;

11) The group worker needs to make detailed planning decisions about the structure
and character of the group.
55
Social Group Work I “Thinking out a suitable group structure for a population of persons is a fairly
complex task which requires an understanding of the population, information
about the range of groups which can be designed, and an appreciation of the
demands which different structures make on group members and of the
experiences which different structures are likely to generate” (Whitaker1985, p
12)

 What is the expected duration of the group in terms of number of sessions

(say, 10 to 20 sessions) after which the group is expected to disband or
terminate, or it will be open-ended as it very often happens in groups in the
open community, or in residential institutions where the inmates’ population
is fluid because the inmates may get discharged and new inmates join in.

 What will be the duration and frequency of the sessions, for example, weekly
sessions of one or one-and-half hour each.

 What will be the size of the proposed group? How many members will be
enrolled? Social group work is more effective in small groups as it facilitates
interactions, communication and efficient role performance. Usually the
‘preferred size is 7-8 members but the range of 5-10 members is acceptable’
(Yalom quoted by Northen & Kurland, 2001, p.136). However, depending
on the purpose, a relatively larger group also may work well. Another
determinant of the size is the prospective members’ capacity to interact in
groups. For members with limited interactional skills, the size of the group
could be limited to 4-5 persons (e.g., in case of mentally challenged children)

 Decision about the composition of the group has to be made right at the
planning stage. We have already referred to the issue of homogeneity and
heterogeneity among the members (i.e., similarity or dissimilarity along social
categories like age, gender, minority status, ethnicity, social problems, etc)
as also the factors which may influence members’ willingness to join in the
proposed group. In therapy oriented groups size and composition are of
vital significance.

 What ‘programme’ will be followed in the group – discussions – open or

topic oriented; activities – games, art & craft work, drama, role plays,
simulation, community service etc.; get-togethers or combination of these?

 What resources in terms of space, time, finances and technology will be

required by the group? Are the same available in the agency / community or
do they need to be generated?
12) Does the worker need to make pre-group contacts with prospective members
or engage in some preparatory work with them?
13) Deciding how to open the group, how to monitor the group through its life span,
how to evaluate the group’s performance and development, and when and how
to terminate the group is equally important for efficient planning of a group.
14) In many of the non-social work institutions like schools, hospitals, prisons the
social worker needs co-operation and support of staff belonging to other
disciplines. It is important to ensure that the proposed group will receive necessary
support from other staff of the agency.
56
15) The worker has to ascertain whether s/he needs permission of some authority for Process of Group
Formation
launching the proposed group. In case of community based self-help groups,
support and sanction of community leaders is often vital for the success of the
group.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1) Describe the components of planning a group.
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2) Explain the component of composition of a group. What determines the
optimum size of a group?
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3) Before staring a group, what major decisions have to be taken by the worker?
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4) What is the purpose of pre-group contacts with individual members?
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4.4 PROCESS OF GROUP FORMATION – TASKS

UNDERTAKEN BY THE SOCIAL GROUP
WORKER
We mentioned in the forgoing discussion that the worker has to find answers to certain
important questions while embarking on the use of a group to help the target group.
Now we will outline the actual tasks the worker has to engage in to initiate the process
of group formation. 57
Social Group Work I 1) Once the use of group has been accepted as the best possible option (after
considering different alternatives) for helping the designated population
group, the group worker has to formulate a tentative purpose for the group.
The worker identifies a common need or concern of the target group and
translates that need into a tentative purpose of the prospective group. The
following situations may illustrate the rationale for selecting group work as
a better option to help:
a) several people facing similar situation can benefit from sharing their
experiences (parents of mentally challenged children);
b) persons belonging to same stage of development like adolescents who
can benefit from positive group experiences;
c) when individuals have problems with authority figures, in relating to
others or having problem of isolation;
d) when the target for change is in the social environment like sanitation,
educational or health services and the need is for enhanced civic
amenities;
e) when people wish or need to avail of the benefit of some beneficiary-
oriented scheme of the govt. which requires formation of a group, like
self-help groups for procuring microcredit.
2) If the worker is required to work with an already existing group, s/he needs to
comprehend its purpose before s/he begins work with the group.
3) Achieving optimally effective composition of the group is a crucial task during
the formation process.
Will the group constitute only of women or young girls, only of men or male
youth, of children, of able-bodied or differently-abled persons; will it be a mix of
persons belonging to different regions, religions, languages and cultural
background, with different educational and socio-economic status? This decision
will largely be based on the tentative purpose formulated, anticipated member
behaviour and emotional response to prospective members and the knowledge
of the patterns of habitual social intercourse prevailing in the larger population
group. For example in Indian society, groups with the mix of genders are socially
not very acceptable, unless the group’s purpose is task-oriented (for example in
the corporate sector) which may benefit by a combination of diverse skills and
perspectives; or a group composed of all aggressive or all withdrawn persons
may not benefit from interaction with each other.
Who is selected to be the member of the proposed group has lasting impact on
the individual member and the group as a whole. If persons are placed in groups
that are unsuitable for them, they may be harmed by the membership or may
drop out of the group. Different results flow from different combination of people.
What is important is to see that there is a good fit between any one person and
the other group members. (Northen & Kurland, 2001, p.129)
The size of the group should be determined by the nature of interaction among
the members and their participation necessary for achieving the purpose of the
individual members and the group as a whole.
4) The worker identifies potential members from the designated population group
on the basis of different criteria mentioned earlier.
58
 Process of Group
a) The worker may select members from students of a class; from a list prepared Formation
on the basis of a survey of the families below poverty line or of children
afflicted with some specified disability; from the census report; from
membership of previous groups; from the list of persons who may have
applied for a particular course or training; or the official records of courts,
hospitals, therapists, psychiatric clinics etc.
b) The worker may need to advertise (by word of mouth, leaflets, posters, ads
in the newspapers, letters to the institutions like schools from where the
potential members can be drawn), state the purpose of initiating the group
and invite members to join.
(i) In a community-based agency, the worker talked to the community
leaders, local MLA and Municipal Councillor, visited the potential
members personally and explained the purpose of the group and
its likely benefits for them.
(ii) In an epilepsy clinic for children, parents accompanying their wards
were contacted by the social worker and the purpose, content and
structure of the proposed group was explained to them personally.
iii) In a residential ‘Home’ for destitute children, the worker, though
known to the inmates on account of her different responsibilities,
explored the strengths and liabilities of the prospective members
in terms of the purpose envisaged, the contribution expected of
the members for the proposed group and informed all potential
members about the group to be launched and its purpose and
structure.
5) Pre-group contacts form a significant part of the worker’s tasks during the group
formation process. The aim of these contacts is to secure appropriate members
for the group being planned and their preparation for participation in that group.
Through these contacts, the people in the target population get to know the
availability and nature of the group-based service, their eligibility for that service,
ascertain if their goals are similar to others to be met through the group and
prepare them for entry in the particular group. (Northen & Kurland, 2001, p.155).
The above-mentioned tasks may require more than one visit or meeting. The
worker informs the potential members the tentatively planned group structure,
the duration and the frequency of the sessions. In case of a group of children or
young adults, pre-group contacts also entail meeting the parents / family members
to apprise them of the proposed group, its purpose, the benefits it will offer and
its structure. Pre-group contacts may occur during a meeting of the community
residents and community leaders or during some social / religious event during
which the worker gets an opportunity to introduce the group to be launched.
6) Pre-group interview (one or more than one) with potential member helps clarify
and alleviate member’s anxiety about the group’s structure, expectations of the
group in terms of his role, response of other members towards his membership.
It brings out valuable data about the member’s attitudes, perception of his need,
life situation or difficulty; and his capacity to relate to and to communicate with
others;
In therapy groups, Intake interviews are held with individuals to arrive at an in-
depth assessment of the nature and severity of the problem, difficulty or situation;
59
Social Group Work I on the basis of which their compatibility or incompatibility to group membership
may be decided.
7) Even when the potential members are convinced of the purpose of the group,
they may be anxious to know as to what exactly is expected of them, how
will the group work and what will the other members be like.
8) Pre-group contact also initiates worker – member relationship, whether
conducted through an individual interview, a visit to the locality of the
potential members, or in a meeting held in the community.
9) Certain rules and norms that the members are expected to observe initially,
the issues of confidentiality, democratic participation, anti-discrimination,
and the manner of modifying the norms need to be shared with the potential
members during pre-group contacts.

Right from the point of worker / agency agreeing to plan the group; spelling out
its purpose, structure, membership; undertaking publicity; selection and
recruitment of potential members, worker has to perform numerous important
tasks which have long lasting impact on the group’s success in terms of
achievement of its goal – individual member’s and the group. Planning the entire process
of group formation before the group has its first meeting is vital for the group’s success.

4.5 PRACTICE PRINCIPLES: GUIDELINES FOR

GROUP FORMATION
A number of practitioners and authors have formulated Practice Principles for effective
and efficient group work practice. Some of these are particularly concerned with the
group formation phase of group work. These principles offer guidelines to the worker
for securing effective formation of the proposed group.
1) Comfort level of the worker - Since the professional social workers are usually
not trained in the use of specific methods of social work (especially in generic
courses), the worker planning to form the group needs to ascertain his / her own
expertise and comfort level in working with groups. Whether the worker needs
to enhance his / her knowledge and skills before embarking on group formation
or to enlist the help of a more experienced co- worker is an important issue to be
resolved.
2) Planning for a group’s formation is a most vital step in the group based service to
the target population. To avoid its conflict with the ‘value’ of client’s right to self-
determination the plan should not be rigid. In fact, flexibility and creativity are
two essential attributes of planning undertaken for group formation.
3) Secure organizational support and sanction for group, and address organizational
resistance to groups if needed.
4) The purpose of forming the group in view should be clearly for the benefit and
service of the target population and not merely to receive aid and grants from
some financing organization, to collect data for an undisclosed purpose, or to
project certain image in the community. This kind of hidden agenda involves
manipulation of the target groups and is unethical practice.
5) Develop and articulate verbally and/or in writing a clear statement of group purpose
60
 that reflects member needs and, where appropriate, agency mission. ( AASGW) Process of Group
Formation
According to Newstetter, “the deliberate formation of a new group should be
encouraged only after the careful review of three considerations: a) the interests,
abilities, experiences and needs of each prospective individual member, b) the
agency’s purpose, c) the availability of suitable facilities, leadership and
supervision”. (1980, p.101)
6) The workers often feel uncomfortable in honestly admitting of the purpose
envisaged by them or by the agency. They feel that the purpose as it appears
in the blue print of the plan may not sound too attractive to the prospective
members and, therefore, speak of the purpose in terms which they think
may be acceptable to the prospective members. This is likely to create
mistrust, confusion and anxiety among the potential members.
7) Particularly in the case of involuntary groups (mandated membership like
in groups under court order or students under suspension for indiscipline),
the clarity in the statement of purpose, the proposed group structure and
content is very vital to win prospective members’, participation, interaction and
trust.
8) Develop and articulate clear statement of worker role that reflects the group’s
purpose.
9) Use preparatory empathy to tune into members’ feelings and reactions to
group’s beginning.
10) Tuning-in helps the worker anticipate members’ needs and feelings and
develop preliminary empathy. The worker also tunes-in to one’s own feelings,
attitudes and thoughts about the ensuing group encounter.
11) Establish meeting place, time, etc. that promotes member comfort and cohesion.
12) Negotiation and contracting with the members in the context of purpose, structure
and norms of the proposed group contribute significantly to future stability and
cohesiveness of the group.
13) Groups need to be formed in a way that enables them to do the work that they
will be asked to do. This involves minimizing barriers to group cohesiveness and
then giving them the resources they need (in terms of talent, time, etc.).
14) For the formation to be efficient, group workers need to take into account any
constraints that can influence the performance of the group as a whole and that of
the individuals within the group, such as their previous experience, gender, ethnicity,
and interests.

15) The worker needs to pay special attention to composition issues to achieve a
balanced group.

16) The worker is accountable for his /her professional expertise which is made
available for the service of the people. While formulating Standards for
Social Work Practice with Groups, AASGW recommended the following areas
of knowledge for the group worker at the pre-group stage:

A) Organization’s mission and function and how this influences nature of group
work service
61
Social Group Work I B) Social and institutional barriers which may impact on the development of
group work service

C) Issues associated with group composition

D) Human life cycle and its relationship to potential members’ needs

E) Cultural factors and their influence on potential members’ lives and their
ability to engage in group and relate to others

F) Types of groups and their relationship to member needs

G) Specific types of individual and social problems that lead to a need for
group

Check Your Progress III

Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1) How can the group worker locate the prospective members for the proposed
group?
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................................................................................................................
2) What criteria does a worker follow in achieving balanced membership in the
group?
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................................................................................................................
3) Explain the concept of pre-group contact. In what different ways can a group
worker engage in pre-group contacts?
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4) Explain two important principles that underline effective process of group
formation.
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62 ................................................................................................................
 Process of Group
4.6 LET US SUM UP Formation

Getting a group formed takes time and skills. Called variously as the group formation
stage, pre-group or pre-affiliation stage, it requires thoughtful and serious planning
and its rigorous and patient execution before the first meeting of the group is ever
conducted.

Group formation constitutes of a series of interconnected activities, which are based

on a judicious and well thought out plan. Society, social agency, the social group
worker and the people availing of the group-based services together determine what
kind of group is planned and launched; who join the proposed group and why; and
what is going to happen in the group in the forthcoming period.

Prior to the first meeting, a conception of the necessity and utility of group experience
has to be framed in the contexts of the worker / agency perceptions, which in turn, is
based on the worker’s personal and professional experiences, knowledge of human
development and social systems. Other relevant factors follow from this initial
conceptualization. The major components of the group formation plan embedded in
the social and agency contexts are need, purpose, structure, content and pre-group
contacts.

Worker has to engage in a number of tasks to recruit and prepare potential members
for the proposed group. How balanced a group membership is managed by the worker
will ensure, to a great extent, the success of the group in terms of achievement of
individual / group / agency goals. You have learnt practice principles particularly relevant
to pre-group or group formation. These principles go a long way in guiding group
formation process along effective and ethical pathways.

4.7 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

1) Malekoff, Andrew, Group Work with Adolescents: Principles and Practice,
The Guilford Press, New York, 2nd Edition, 2004

2) Wilson, Gertrude, Ryland, Gladys, Social Group Work Practice: The Creative
Use of the Social Process, Houghton Mifflin Co., The Riberside Press,
Cambridge, USA, 1949.

3) Brown, Allan, Groupwork, Gower Publishing Company Ltd., Aldershot 2nd

ed. 1986

4) Johnson, Louise C., Social Work Practice: A Generalist Approach, Allyn and
Bacon, Boston, 6th Ed.1998

5) Northen, Helen & Kurland, Roselle, Social Work with Groups, Columbia
University Press, New York, 3rd Ed.2001

6) Benson, Jarlath F., Working More Creatively with Groups, Tavistock

Publications, London, 1987

7) Konopka, Gisela, Social group Work: A Helping Process, Prentice-Hall,

Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1972, 1963

63
Social Group Work I
8) Balgopal, Pallassana R. & Vassil, Thomas V., Groups in Social Work- An
Ecological Perspective, Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., New York, 1983

9) Association for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups, Inc.,

Standards for Social Work Practice with Groups, AASWG, Alexandria,
VA, 2nd ed., 2006

10) Whitaker, Dorothy Stock, Using Groups to Help People, Routledge and Kegan
Paul, London, 1985

11) Newstetter, Wilber, Regulatory Principles, in Albert S. Alissi (ed.) Perspectives

on Social Group Work Practice: A Book of Readings, The Free Press, New
York, 1980.

12) Dwivedi, R. S., Human Relations and Organisational Behaviour: A Global

Perspective, Macmillan India Ltd., Delhi, 2001, 5th Ed. Pp 265-269

13) Tosi, H.L., Rizzo, J.R., & Carroll, S.J. 1986. Managing Organizational
Behaviour. NewYork, NY: Pitman (Quoted in Management of agricultural
research: A training manual. Module 4: Leadership, [Link]
docrep/W7504E/[Link]

14) Cartwright, D., Zander, A. (eds.), Group Dynamics, Harper & Row
Publishers, New York, 1968.

15) Cottam Martha L., Dietz-Uhler Beth, Masters Elena M., Preston Thomas,
Introduction to Political Psychology , Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Mahwah, New Jersey, London 2004

16) Roth, Jeffrey D., Dynamics differ when group is mandated to participate,
Addiction Professional, 2005

[Link]

17) Baugher, Dan, Varanelli Jr., Andrew,.and Weisbord, Ellen, Gender And Culture
Diversity Occurring In Self-formed Work Groups, Journal of Managerial
Issues Volume XII Number 4 — Winter 2000

18) Ounnas, Asma, Semantic (Group Formation), PhD Research Proposal, 2007
University of Southampton, UK

64
UNIT 5 VALUES AND PRINCIPLES IN
SOCIAL GROUP WORK

Contents
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Values in Social Group Work
5.3 Principles of Social Group Work
5.4 Let Us Sum Up
5.5 Further Readings and References

5.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit presents a discourse on the values and principles of social group work. The
aim of this unit is to make the learner understand the values underlying group work
practice as well as the principles a professional social worker should apply when
working with the groups. In this unit we have tried to conceptualize the values and
principles that are integral to the group work process and aid the practitioner in achieving
the goals of her/his profession. After studying this unit you should be able to:
 Understand the values underlying the social group work practice.
 State the principles governing the social group work practice.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
‘No man is an island unto himself’ said John Donne and rightly so. Human beings
were not meant to live alone. The process of growing up takes place in one or the
other group; be it family, peers, neighbourhood or community. Man is a social being
and cannot survive alone. Group life is thus, basic to human life. A group is a collection
of human beings who enter into social relationships with one another involving mutual
give and take.
Social Group Work is focused around a group; it emphasizes the intellectual, social
and emotional growth and development of the members of the group. It is a process
in which a qualified social work practitioner helps individuals in a group to have a
satisfactory group experience through different programs aimed at enhancing their
psycho-social functioning. It is through different activities in a group situation that an
individual is able to discover her/his hidden strengths, talents and abilities. Social Group
Work plays a vital role in the all round development of an individual, thereby contributes
to the better functioning of the community and society as a whole.
Social Group Workers have an ethical obligation to function within the confines of a
theoretical base comprising of tested interventions and principles of practice. The
Social Group Work as a method of social work has embraced a set of values which
have been translated into certain principles which seek to govern the conduct of
practitioners. We shall now take a look at the values and the principles that define the
Social Group Work practice.
65
Social Group Work I
5.2 VALUES IN SOCIAL GROUP WORK
Observations pertaining to the fact that groups influence the psycho-social and
psychological makeup of man have been the bedrock of the theoretical and value
base of Social Group Work. “All professions have value preferences that give
purpose , meaning and direction to people who pract ice within
them…….Professional values however do not exist separate and apart from
societal values; rather professions espouse and champion selected societal values.”
(Hepworth and Larsen, 1992,) According to Northen (2007) values are abstract
propositions about what is right, desirable or worthwhile. Values of group work
refer to how the practitioner should view and treat people, their goals and how
these goals should be reached during the process. In a profession, the values are
translated into ethical principles of practice. According to the National Association
of Social worker’s (NASW) code of ethics “broad ethical principles are based
on social work’s core values of service, social justice, dignity and worth of
individual, importance of human relationships, integrity and competence. These
principles set forth ideals to which all social workers should aspire.”

The basic values of group work deal with human relationships. These basic values
as conceptualized by Northen (2007: 77) are given below:

Dignity and Worth

Like in case work and community organization, an important value of Social

Group Work is the belief in the inherent worth and dignity of each person. All
persons should be accepted as they are and their special strengths recognized.
They should be treated with respect irrespective of their differences and
similarities and their integrity is of paramount importance. Every individual is
unique and has an inherent worth, interactions with them as they use resources
and opportunities should not hurt rather should enhance their dignity and
individuality. Without fear of negative sanctions, they should have the freedom
to express themselves. The group worker should recognize the value that every
member no matter whatever are her/his drawbacks and handicaps has worth and
deserves to be respected and treated as a dignified member of the society.

Social Justice

Inherent in all social work is the value of promoting social justice wherin all
should have equal access to resources and opportunities. Everybody has the right
to civil liberties and equal opportunity without discrimination as to race, ethnicity
religion, social class, gender, sexual orientation, and capacities. They should
have access to resources that are essential to meet their basic needs. They have
the right to self-determination and to participate in making group, family, or
organizational decisions within the limits imposed by the individual’s culture
and status. Individuals may sometimes need resources that are not available, the
worker has to then take on the role of an advocate and take up their cause. S/he
may organize support groups and self-help groups to help people cope with the
difficult problems of their living.

Mutual Responsibility

The value of mutual responsibility is based on the conviction that people are
66 interdependent for survival and fulfillment of their needs. Neither the individual nor the
society can be conceived without each other. As individuals interact, they influence Values and Principles in
Social Group Work
and in turn are influenced by each other. They are capable of helping one another.
Group work builds on this interdependence, which can become a potent force for
development and change. The worker is responsible for helping members to develop
patterns of communication and norms of behaviour that foster mutual aid. Members
should fulfill their responsibility to society by actively participating in the democratic
processes.

Northen (2007) is of the view that though social workers are bound by ethical principles
set forth in the codes of ethics, they need also to understand and differentially apply
these principles, when working with groups.
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Write a brief essay on the basic values of Social Group Work.
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5.3 PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK

Principles are the fundamental truths tested by observation and experiment which
guide action. Over the years from social group work practice, have emerged
certain principles which provide a theoretical framework to the practitioners
while working with people in groups. They provide a set of guidelines which
help them achieve a certain level of competence by guiding practice. ‘Social
workers with groups have a responsibility to practice within the realm of the
accumulated theoretical base, tested interventions, and ethical principles.’
(Northen, 2007)

Social science theory is always in a fluid state, as it keeps changing and evolving.
The principles of Social Group Work too will keep changing in tandem with our
progressive experience and discovery of new insights into social group work as
a method of social work. Different authors have outlined different principles of
working with groups from time to time, conceptualizing the important areas of
focus for the Social Group Worker. It is not possible here to discuss all the
principles put forth by different authors, therefore we shall outline the principles
propounded by only two authors, reflecting the earlier and the modern day
thinking, respectively.

In 1948 Harleigh B. Trecker wrote at great length about the principles of Social Group
Work in his famous book ‘Social Group Work: Principles and Practice’ which is still
read widely. The ten principles of Social Group Work as conceptualized by Trecker
are briefly discussed below outlining the main points:
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Social Group Work I The Principle of Planned Group Formation

The Social Group Work process uses group as a medium for providing services to the
individual, hence the formation of a group is a prerequisite for a group worker. Whether
a group worker works with groups already functioning or forms her own group, s/he
should be aware of certain factors while forming a group so that the group becomes a
positive potential for individual growth.

A group has to be formed in a planned way before initiating the group work process.
From what is explained by Trecker we can say this principle comprises the following
fundamentals:
 Groups like individuals are different, evolving, developmental and ever-changing
and tremendously influential upon the behaviour of individuals.
 The group in Social Group Work must possess elements of conscious design and
plan.
 The group worker should not seek to require all groups to be alike nor expect
them to meet identical needs.
 The group worker’s skill will be evident in the way s/he consciously gives
aid at the point of group formation.

In India group formation can become a difficult exercise as the people may lack
the motivation to join a group and may do so after much persuasion. So the
group worker must have the skill to deal with the resistance of such members.
The group worker should be equipped with an in-depth understanding of the
client population, and pay attention to inter- personal compatibility and other
factors such as age, caste, gender, socio-cultural background etc.

The Principle of Specific Group Objectives

Specific objectives of individual and group development must be consciously

formulated by the worker in harmony with group wishes and capacities and in
keeping with agency function. The group worker should help the members achieve
the overall objectives of social work through its own specific objectives, which
are to assist individuals to grow and change; supplement emotional and social
nourishment; promote democratic participation and remedy individual and social
disorganization.
 Agencies and their workers must be aware of what people want from group
experiences and help them to get it.
 The group worker who recognizes the need for consciously formulated
specific objectives for individuals and groups becomes a purposeful, rather
than an unfocused worker and makes the group work in a planned than
haphazard exercise.
 Objectives, thus, become a controlling force in the life of the group and the group
worker should have clarity about the specific goals s/he wants to achieve along
with the benefits s/he is hoping the members would get.
 When the worker focuses on individual and group objectives, s/ he reduces the
likelihood of permitting her/his own needs to get in the way of the group.
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 S/he helps the members to see their strengths and limitations and set their objectives Values and Principles in
Social Group Work
accordingly, in alignment with the agency’s formulated purposes.
 The expectations and the aspirations of the members should also be given due
weightage while formulating the objectives and activities planned accordingly.

The Principle of Purposeful Worker Group Relationship

A consciously purposeful relationship must be established between the worker and

the group members based on mutual acceptance. This principle is based on the premise
that it is both possible and necessary to create an effective working relationship with a
group before the worker can be of any help.
 Before the worker helps the group members to develop meaningful relationships
with each other, s/he should first create a meaningful and purposeful relationship
with the group.
 The worker’s relationship with the group is a major tool, and the quality and
strength of this relationship determine the extent to which the group can be helped
to the fullest realization of its potentialities.
 When the group workers adopt the procedures suggested by this principle, they
begin their work motivated by an initial desire to understand the group as a basis
for helping it.
 By encouraging the group to “be itself” and accepting it as it is, the worker becomes
accepted and helpful to the group.

The Principle of Continuous Individualization

Groups are different and individuals utilize group experiences in a variety of ways to
meet their differing needs; consequently, the principle of continuous individualization
must be practiced by the group worker. Each group has to be seen as unique, different
from any other group, like the members in the group.
 When the group worker individualizes a group, she accepts the fact that human
beings are naturally different.
 To work with groups in awareness of their differences as well as similarities is a
reinforcement of the belief that people have a capacity to change, when given
adequate opportunities for and help in changing.
 The worker should be ready for a variety of individual responses rather than a
uniformity of response.
 S/he should accept the differences in individual ability and growth; strive to help
individuals understand themselves and help them modify their behaviour towards
those who have special needs.
 Individualization should be a continuous process on the part of the group worker
who accepts the certainty of change.

The Principle of Guided Group Interaction

Social Group Work is a method through which individuals in groups in an agency

setting are helped by a professionally trained worker who guides their interaction in
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Social Group Work I various program activities. The idea is that they relate themselves with others and
experience growth opportunities in accordance with their needs and capacities.
 Interaction is a process whereby two or more persons are in a meaningful contact,
whereby their behaviour is modified.
 When people are in groups, the possibility of interaction and inter-stimulation are
always present.
 The main source of energy which propels the group is the interaction of the members
and the group worker influences this interaction by the quality of her/his
participation.
 As the possibility of inter-stimulation through interaction is always present in a
group, the Social Group Worker must harness and consciously direct and utilize
this natural social process.
 The presence of the worker whose role is to actively influence the type and the
degree of interaction, converts the social process into the social group work
process.
 The worker is primarily interested in helping to bring about individual growth and
social development for the group as a whole as a result of guided group interaction.
 S/he enhances the potential for interaction by helping members to assume
participating roles.
 The Social Group Worker uses methods that stimulate the group to the fullest
possible analysis and understanding of their own situation and thereupon influence
the social interaction of the constituent members of the society

The Principle of Democratic Group Self-Determination

The Principle of self-determination is a core value of the social work philosophy and
has to be practiced, irrespective of the method of working. In Social Group Work
method, as in other methods of social work this principle is of great significance. The
idea is to inculcate in the members an ideology of democracy.
 The group must be helped to make its own decisions and determine its own
activities, taking the maximum amount of responsibility in line with its capacity
and ability.
 The group has a right to make its own choices and the capacity to make satisfactory
decisions.
 The aim of the group worker is to encourage an ever-increasing capacity on the
part of the group to take responsibility for its actions.
 This principle assumes that groups can develop only when they are given
opportunity to behave responsibly but it is to be consciously judged as to how
much responsibility a group can be asked to assume at any point in its development.
 The group worker must first help the group to develop a conscious group-self
before it can become responsibly self determining.
 The worker should give up any need to dominate the group and instead work
with the group on the basis of her/his ability to share her/his wide experience and
competence.
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The Principle of Flexible Functional Organization Values and Principles in
Social Group Work
Every group has some informal organization of its constituent members that enables it
to function. As the group is formed for specific objectives, it should also have a formal
organization to help it achieve these objectives. This formal organization should meet
a felt need, be flexible, adaptive and should change as the group changes.
 The principle does not imply that group worker should organize the group; rather
she should help the group organize itself.
 The group should be encouraged to explore its needs, set its objectives and
determine specific functions and helped by the group worker to make its own
decisions.
 The worker should help the group to determine who should take the leadership
assignments along with the qualifications and expectations, so that the members
are aware of what the group expects from them.
 Not only the structural details of this formal organization, but the process through
which the worker guides the group to have a formal organization is equally
important.
 Group efforts which may be scattered and haphazard become focused when
formal organization is made available, as it allows the energies of the group
members to be properly channelized.
 Tasks and duties should be identified and allocated in an orderly manner and
members helped and encouraged to assume responsibilities. The process to
organize itself is an excellent vehicle for growth.
 The formal group organization should be simple, stable yet flexible, open to changes
as per group needs.
 The experiences of the group members in solving the organizational problems are
no less valuable than the other program experiences.

The Principle of Progressive Program Experiences

Program in Social Group Work does not only mean the activities or events but is a
broad concept that includes the entire range of individual and group relationships,
interactions and experiences deliberately planned and carried out with the help of
the group worker to achieve the group goals.
 The group worker should not impose her/his program plan on the group but help
the group to develop its own program by extending to the group a variety of
choices. S/he may only make suggestions as to possible programmes.
 The program development is a continuous process and grows out of group
potentialities.
 This principle implies that there is starting point for all group programmes. Small
beginnings can culminate into bigger and more challenging tasks as the group
progresses.
 The program experiences in which the groups engage should begin at the level of
member interest, need, experience and competence and should develop in tandem
with the developing capacity of the group.
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Social Group Work I  The worker should help the group to enjoy a progressive series of program
experiences in consonance with the group’s potential and capacities. The
group cannot be expected to do the same thing all the time.
 After success in simple activities, the group can be encouraged to move to
more complex experiences.

The Principle of Resource Utilization

This principle guides the group worker to utilize the available resources to enrich
the content of the group experience for individuals and group as a whole. For
this it is imperative that the Social Group Worker should possess knowledge
about the resources available in the group, agency and the community. S/he should
use her/his skill in locating and then acquainting the group with the various
resources which can be utilized by the group for different programs.
 The worker serves as a liaison between the group and the community and
her/his ability becomes apparent in the skill with which she draws upon the
environment.
 S/he not only helps to stimulate the group to action but also helps them to
discover and use the agency and community resources and those within the
group. She must ensure that the members procure the required material for
the smooth conduct of the group sessions.
 S/he should take initiative in mobilizing both material and human resources
and oversee the utilization of the available resources by the members for
the common good.

The Principle of Evaluation

Continuous evaluation of process and programs in terms of outcomes by the

worker, agency and the members is not only desirable, albeit essential. Carefully
maintained records can facilitate proper monitoring and evaluation.
 The social group worker should carry out the evaluation of the outcomes in
a carefully planned manner.
 Maintaining records in a systematic and orderly way aids the evaluation
process.
 Evaluation carried out in an objective and neutral way helps in revealing the
extent to which the group has been successful in achieving the group goals.
 A feedback from the members along with the observation and assessment of the
worker help the group members develop insights into their strengths and
weaknesses.
 Evaluation should be done at the end of each session and at the time of the
termination.

According to Siddiqui, the evaluation of the group work generally focuses on the
following points:
 What group goals have been achieved?
 What individual needs have been met?
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 What programme and activities have been successful? Values and Principles in
Social Group Work
 What are the shortcomings?
 What changes will help improve the effectiveness of the intervention?

“Without continuous evaluation objectives become outmoded, programs become static

and groups fail to meet needs. It is the fundamental obligation of every worker and
every agency to rethink and reorganize its practice in the light of thoughtful evaluation.”
(Trecker, 1955) p. 219

Reflecting the modern perspective, different from the earlier conceptualization focusing
on the therapeutic power of the group, we have Sharry who in his book ‘Solution
Focused Group Work’ has put forward some principles of Social Group Work which
we have listed below:
1) Focusing on Change and Possibilities
2) Creating Goals and Preferred Futures
3) Building Strengths, Skills and Resources
4) Looking for What’s Right and What’s Working
5) Being Respectfully curious
6) Creating Co-Operation and Collaboration
7) Using humour and Creativity

The principles as underlined by Sharry show a shift in focus from problems to solutions,
self-help and competence. He emphasizes the therapeutic objective and power of
group, which he calls solution focused brief therapy.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Explain with examples from your field work the following principles :
i) Principle of Planned Group Formation
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
ii) Principle of Specific Group Objectives
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
iii) Principle of Democratic Group self-Determination
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
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Social Group Work I
2) What are the things a Social Group Worker should keep in mind when
implementing the principles of guided group interaction and flexible functional
organization ?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

5.4 LET US SUM UP

Social Group Workers have an ethical obligation to function within the confines of a
theoretical base comprising of tested interventions and principles of practice. The aim
of this unit was to make the learner understand the values and principles a professional
social worker should follow in group work practice that help in achieving the goals of
profession. Social group work as a method of social work has embraced a set of
values which have been translated into certain principles that govern the conduct of
practitioners. According to the National Association of Social worker’s (NASW)
code of ethics “broad ethical principles are based on social work’s core values of
service, social justice, dignity and worth of individual, importance of human
relationships, integrity and competence. These principles set forth ideals to which all
social workers should aspire.”

The basic values of group work deal with human relationships. These basic values
profess belief in the dignity and worth of the individual, social justice and mutual
responsibility. Everybody has the right to civil liberties and equal opportunity without
discrimination as to race, ethnicity, religion, social class, gender, sexual orientation,
and capacities. The value of mutual responsibility is based on the conviction that people
are interdependent for survival and fulfillment of their needs.

From Social Group Work practice over the years, have emerged certain principles
which provide a theoretical framework to social group worker while working with
people in groups. They provide a set of guidelines which guide practice. Different
authors have outlined different principles of working with groups from time to time,
conceptualizing the important areas of focus for the Social Group Worker. Trecker
has listed the following ten principles:
The Principle of Planned Group formation
The Principle of Specific Group Objectives
The Principle of Purposeful Worker Group Relationship
The Principle of Continuous Individualization
The Principle of Guided Group Interaction
The Principle of Democratic Group Self-Determination
The Principle of Flexible Functional Organization
The Principle of Progressive Program Experiences
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 The Principle of Resource Utilization Values and Principles in
Social Group Work
The Principle of Evaluation
Reflecting the modern perspective, focusing on the therapeutic power of the group,
Sharry in his book ‘Solution Focused Group Work’ has put forward the following
principles of Social Group Work :
Focusing on Change and Possibilities
Creating Goals and Preferred Futures
Building Strengths, Skills and Resources
Looking for What’s Right and What’s Working
Being Respectfully Curious
Creating Co-operation and Collaboration
Using Humour and Creativity
As social science theory is always in a fluid state and keeps changing and evolving, of
Social Group Work too will keep evolving in tandem with our understanding of Social
Group Work as a method of social work.

5.5 FURTHER REDAINGS AND REFERENCES

Friedlander W.A (ed.) (1958) Concepts and Methods of Social Work, Prentice Hall
MC, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Garvin, Charles D. et al (eds.) (2008) Handbook of Social Work With Groups, Rawat
Publications, New Delhi.
Konopka Gisela (1963) Social Group Work: A Helping Process, Prentice Hall
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Hepworth, Dean.H. and Larsen, Jo Ann (1992) Direct Social Work Practice:
Theory and Skills, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, California. 4th ed.
Siddiqui, H.Y. (2008) Group Work: Theories and Practices, Rawat Publications,
New Delhi.
Trecker, Harleigh B (1955) Social Group Work- Principles and Practices, New
York: Association Press
Wilson, Gertrude and Gladys Ryland (1949) Social Group Work Practice. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Co.

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