Tissues

What are Tissues?

In simple terms, tissue can be defined as a group of cells with similar shape
and function are termed as tissues. They form a cellular organizational level,
intermediate between the cells and organ system. Organs are then created
by combining the functional groups of tissues.
The study of tissue is known as histology and study of disease-related to
tissue is known as histopathology. The standard tools for studying tissues is
by embedding and sectioning using the paraffin block

Animal tissues are grouped into four types:

 Connective Tissue
 Muscle Tissue
 Nervous Tissue
 Epithelial Tissue
The collection of tissues are joined in structural units to serve a standard
function of organs. The primary purpose of these four types of tissue differs
depending on the type of organism.
For example, the origin of the cells comprising a particular tissue type also
differs.
Connective Tissue
As their name suggests, they connect and support the different tissues,
organs, and parts of the body. Among the animal tissues, connective tissues
are the most abundant ones in the body. The connective tissue cells are
freely arranged in a matrix and are widely distributed in the body. Different
types of connective tissues include areolar tissue, adipose tissue (fat), blood,
bone, and cartilage. Except for blood, all other cells secrete collagen (elastin)
which offers elasticity and flexibility to the tissues.
They are the group of tissues made up of cells separated by non-living
material, called as an extracellular matrix. This tissue provides shape to the
different organs and maintains their positions.
Connective tissue
Connective tissues of the body are classified into embryonic connective
tissue and adult connective tissue.
Embryonic connective tissue
Embrayonic connective tissue contains mesenchyme & mucous connective
tissue. Mesenchyme is the tissue from which all other connective tissue
eventually arises. It is located beneath the skin and along the developing
bone of the embryo. Mucous (Wharton’s Jelly) connective tissue is found
primarily in the fetus and located in the umbilical cord of the fetus where it
supports the cord.
Adult connective tissue
It is differentiated from mesenchyme and does not change after birth. Adult
connective tissue composes connective tissue proper, cartilage, osseous
(bone) & vascular (blood) tissue.
a) Connective tissue proper,
connective tissue proper has a more or less fluid intercellular martial
and fibroblast. The various forms of connective tissue proper are:
• Loose (areolar) connectives tissue, which are widely distributed and
consists collagenic, elastic & reticular fibers and several cells
embedded in semi fluid intercellular substances. It supports tissues,
organ blood vessels & nerves. It also forms subcutaneous
layer/superficial fascia/hypodermis.
• Adipose tissue: It is the subcutaneous layer below the skin,
specialized for fat storage. Found where there is loose connective
tissue. It is common around the kidney, at the base and on the surface
of the heart, in the marrow of long bone, as a padding around joints
and behind the eye ball. It is poor conductor of heat, so it decrease
heat loss from the body
• Dense (Collagenous) connective tissue: Fibers are closely packed
than in loose connective tissue. Exists in areas where tensions are
exerted in various directions. In areas where fibers are interwoven with
out regular orientation the forces exerted are in many directions. This
occurs in most fascia like deeper region of dermis, periosteum of bone
and membrane capsules. In other areas dense connective tissue
adapted tension in one direction and fibers have parallel arrangement.
Examples are tendons and ligaments. Dense connective tissues
provide support & protection and connect muscle to bone.
• Elastic connective tissue: Posses freely branching elastic fibers. They
stretch and snap back in to original shape. They are components of
wall of arteries, trachea, bronchial tubes & lungs. It also forms vocal
cord. Elastic connective tissue allows stretching, and provides support
& suspension.
• Reticular connective tissue: Lattice of fine, interwoven threads that
branch freely, forming connecting and supporting framework. It helps
to form a delicate supporting storma for many organs including liver,
spleen and lymph nodes. It also helps to bind together the fibers (cells)
of smooth muscle tissue.
b) Cartilage
Unlike other connective tissue, cartilages have no blood vessels and
nerves. It consists of a dense network of collagenous fibers and elastic
fibers firmly embedded in chondriotin sulfate. The strength is because
of collagenous fibers. The cells of a matured cartilage are called
chondrocyte. The surface of a cartilage is surrounded by irregularly
arranged dense connective tissue called perichondrium. Cartilages are
classified in to hyaline, fibro & elastic cartilage.
 Hyaline cartilage: is called gristle, most abundant, blue white in color &
able to bear weight. Found at joints over long bones as articlar
cartilage and forms costal cartilage (at ventral end of ribs). It also
forms nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchial tubes. It forms
embryonic skeleton, reinforce respiration, aids in free movement of
joints and assists rib cage to move during breathing.
Fibro cartilage: they are found at the symphysis pubis, in the inter-
vertebral discs and knee. It provides support and protection.
Elastic cartilage: in elastic cartilage the chondrocyte are located in
thread like network of elastic fibers. Elastic cartilage provides strength
and elasticity and maintains the shape of certain organs like epiglottis,
larynx, external part of the ear and Eustachian tube. c)
c) Osseous tissue (Bone): The matured bone cell osteocytes, embedded
in the intercellular substance consisting mineral salts (calcium
phosphate and calcium carbonate) with collagenous fibers. The
osseous tissue together with cartilage and joints it comprises the
skeletal system.
d) Vascular tissue (Blood tissue) It is a liquid connective tissue. It contains
intercellular substance plasma. Plasma is a straw colored liquid,
consists water and dissolved material. The formed elements of the
blood are erythrocytes, leukocytes and thrombocytes. The fibrous
characteristics of a blood revealed when clotted.
Functions of Connective Tissue
The connective tissue functions by providing shape and maintains the
position of different organs in the body. It functions as the primary
supporting tissue of the body. Other important and the major functions of
connective tissue in the body are:

1. Insulating.
2. Helps in binding the organs together and provides support.
3. It protects against the invasions of pathogens by their phagocytic
activity.
4. Provides shape to the body, conserves body heat and also stores
energy.
5. It is involved in the transportation of water, nutrients, minerals,
hormones, gases, wastes, and other substances within the body

Muscle Tissue
They are involved in producing force and generating motion, either for the
locomotion or for other body movements within internal organs. There are
three types of muscle tissue:
  Skeletal Muscle – they are typically attached to bones
 Cardiac Muscle – found in the heart.
 Visceral or Smooth Muscle – they are found in the inner walls of
organs.

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

 These muscles are attached to the skeleton and help in its movement.
 These muscles are also known as striated muscles because of the
presence of alternate patterns of light and dark bands.
 These light and dark bands are sarcomeres which are highly organized
structures of actin, myosin, and proteins. These add to the contractility
and extensibility of the muscles.
 Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles composed of muscle fibers.
 40% of our body mass comprises skeletal muscles.
 Each skeletal tissue contains myofibrils.
 The cells of these tissues are multinucleated.
 These are provided with blood vessels and many elongated
mitochondria and glycogen granules.
 They bring about the movement of the organs of the body.

Smooth Muscle Tissue

 These are non-striated, involuntary muscles controlled by the
Autonomous Nervous System.
 It stimulates the contractility of the digestive, urinary, reproductive
systems, blood vessels, and airways.
 The actin and myosin filaments are very thin and arranged randomly,
hence no striations.
 The cells are spindle-shaped with a single nucleus.

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

 These are found only in the heart.
 These are involuntary muscles and the heart pumps the blood through
cardiac contractions.
 The cells of the cardiac muscles known as the cardiomyocytes are
striated.
 They are single-celled and uninucleated.
 The ends of the cells are joined and the junctions are called
intercalated discs. The cells are attached to each other by
desmosomes.

Muscular Tissue Function

The muscular tissues are connected to the same nerve bundles.
The nerve impulse from the brain tells the muscles to contract.
Each muscle cell contains the proteins action and myosin. These proteins
slide past one another when the signal is received for contraction.
A single cell contracts up to 70% in length. The entire muscle shortens
during contraction.
Muscular tissues help in the movement of bones, squeeze different organs,
or compress chambers.

Functions of Muscle Tissue

Muscle tissues are associated with their movements including walking,
running, lifting, chewing, picking and dropping objects, etc. The other major
functions of muscle tissue in the body are:

1. Helps in maintaining an erect position, or posture.

2. Helps in the constriction of organs and blood vessels.
3. Involved in both voluntary and involuntary movements.
4. Involved in pumping blood and regulating the flow of blood in arteries.
5. Controls respiration by automatically driving the movement of air both
into and out of our body.
 STRAIATED MUSCLE

NON STRAIATED MUSCLE

CARDIAC MUSCLE
Nervous Tissue
They are the main tissue components of the brain and spinal cord in the
central nervous system. While, in the peripheral nervous system, the
neural tissue forms the cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
Functions of Nervous Tissue
The nervous tissue forms the communication network of the nervous system
and is important for information processing. The other major functions of
nervous tissue in the body are:

 Response to stimuli.
 Stimulates and transmits information within the body.
 Plays a major role in emotions, memory, and reasoning.
 Maintains stability and creates an awareness of the environment.
 Nervous tissue is involved in controlling and coordinating many
metabolic activities.

Epithelial Tissue
They are formed by cells which cover the external parts of the body organs
and lines the organ surfaces such as the surface of the skin, the
reproductive tract, the airways, and the inner lining of the digestive tract.
All layers and organs in the body are lined by a group of tissues called
epithelial tissues which are commonly referred to as epithelium. They cover
the surface of all internal as well as external organs. Epithelial tissue is
highly permeable. Thus, it plays a significant role in the exchange of
substances across the cells and helps in maintaining the osmoregulation.
Depending on the number of layers of cells it is composed of, the epithelium
has been divided into the simple epithelium and compound epithelium. The
main functions of epithelial tissue are protection, secretion, absorption, and
sensation.
Epithelial tissues covers body surface, lines body cavity & ducts and form
glands. They are subdivided in to:

- Covering & lining epithelium

- Glandular epithelium
Covering and lining epithelium: it forms the outer covering of external body
surface and outer covering of some internal organs. It lines body cavity,
interior of respiratory & gastro intestinal tracts, blood vessels & ducts and
make up along with the nervous tissue (the parts of sense organs for smell,
hearing, vision and touch). It is a tissue from which gametes (egg & sperm)
develops.
Covering and lining epithelium are classified based on the arrangement of
layers and cell shape.
According to the arrangement of layers covering and lining epithelium is
grouped in to:
a) Simple epithelium: it is specialized for absorption, and filtration with
minimal wear & tear. It is a single layered
b) Stratified epithelium, it is many layered and found in an area with high
degree of wear & tear.
c) Pseudo-stratified, is a single layered but seam to have many layer.

Based on the cell shape covering and lining epithelium is grouped in to:
a) Squamous: - flattened & scale like
b) Cuboidal: - cube shaped
c) Columnar: - tall & cylindrical
d) Transitional: - combination of cell shape found where there is a great
degree of distention or expansion, these may be cuboidal to columnar,
cuboidal to polyhydral and cuboidal to Squamous

Therefore considering the number of layers and cell shape we can classify
covering and lining epithelium in to the following groups:
Simple epithelium
a) Simple – Squamous epithelium, contain single layer of flat, scale like
resemble tiled floor. It is highly adapted to diffusion, osmosis & filtration.
Thus, it lines the air sacs of lung, in kidneys, blood vessels and lymph
vessels.
b) Simple – cuboidal epithelium, Flat polygon that covers the surface of
ovary, lines the anterior surface of lens of the eye, retina & tubules of kidney
c) Simple – columnar epithelium, Similar to simple cuboidal. It is modified in
several ways depending on location & function. It lines the gastro-intestinal
tract gall bladder, excretory ducts of many glands. It functions in secretions,
absorption, protection & lubrication.
Stratified epithelium
It is more durable, protects underlying tissues form external environment
and from wear & tear.
a) Stratified Squamous epithelium: In this type of epithelium, the outer cells
are flat. Stratified squamous epithelium is subdivided in to two based on
presence of keratin. These are Non-Keratnized and Keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium. Non-Keratnized stratified squamous epithelium is
found in wet surface that are subjected to considerable wear and tear.
Example: - Mouth, tongue and vagina. In Keratinized, stratified squamous
epithelium the surface cell of this type forms a tough layer of material
containing keratin. Example: skin. Keratin, is a waterproof protein, resists
friction and bacterial invasion.
b) Stratified cuboidal epithelium, rare type of epithelium. It is found in seat
glands duct, conjunctiva of eye, and cavernous urethra of the male
urogenital system, pharynx & epiglottis. Its main function is secretion.
c) Stratified columnar epithelium, uncommon to the body. Stratified
columnar epithelium is found in milk duct of mammary gland & anus layers.
It functions in protection and secretion.
Transitional epithelium
The distinction is that cells of the outer layer in transitional epithelium tend
to be large and rounded rather than flat. The feature allows the tissue to be
stretched with out breakage. It is found in Urinary bladder, part of Ureters &
urethra.
Pseudo stratified epithelium
Lines the larger excretory ducts of many glands, epididymis, parts of male
urethra and auditory tubes. Its main function is protection & secretion
Glandular Epithelium
Their main function is secretion. A gland may consist of one cell or a group of
highly specialized epithelial cell. Glands can be classified into exocrine and
endocrine according to where they release their secretion.
Exocrine: Those glands that empties their secretion in to ducts/tubes that
empty at the surface of covering. Their main products are mucous, oil, wax,
perspiration and digestive enzyme. Sweat & salivary glands are exocrine
glands.
Endocrine: They ultimately secret their products into the blood system. The
secretions of endocrine glands are always hormones. Hormones are
chemicals that regulate various physiological activities. Pituitary, thyroid &
adrenal glands are endocrine.
Classification of exocrine glands
They are classified by their structure and shape of the secretary portion.
According to structural classification they are grouped into:
a) Unicellular gland: Single celled. The best examples are goblet cell in
Respiratory, Gastrointestinal & Genitourinary system.
b) Multicultural gland: Found in several different forms
By looking in to the secretary portion exocrine glands are grouped into
a) Tubular gland: If the secretary portion of a gland is tubular.
b) Acinar gland: If the secretary portion is flask like.
C) Tubulo-acinar: if it contains both tubular & flask shaped secretary portion.
Further more if the duct does not branch it is referred as a simple gland and
if it branch's it is compound gland. By combining the shape of the secretary
portion with the degree of branching of the duct of exocrine glands are
classified in to
- Unicellular
- Multi-cellular ƒ
Simple tubular
Branched tubular
Coiled tubular
Acinar
Branched Acinar
- Compound
Tubular
Acinar
Tubulo-acinar
Functions of Epithelial Tissue
This tissue performs a wide variety of functions including:

1. Play a major role in sensory reception, excretion, filtration and other

metabolic activities.
2. Provide mechanical strength and resistance to the underlying cells and
tissue.
3. It is involved in the movement of materials through the process of
filtration, diffusion and secretion.
4. Protects the internal organs against the invasions of pathogens, toxins,
physical trauma, radiation, etc.
Epithelial tissues are also involved in secreting hormones, enzymes, mucus
and other products from ducts and transporting it to the circulatory system.

Myoepithelial cells are localized between luminal epithelial cells and the
stroma, which ideally positions them to communicate with both
compartments. Moreover, recent studies indicate that myoepithelial cells
may function as a guardian of tissue integrity in the human breast by
maintaining tissue polarity

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CELL PHYSIOLOGY

Cell physiology is the biological study of the activities that take place in
a cell to keep it alive. The term physiology refersto normal functions in a
living organism.[1] Animal cells, plant cells and microorganism cells show
similarities in their functions even though they vary in structure

Physiology is the branch of medicine that focuses on the main biochemical

principles involved in the appropriate functioning of humans. The most
important of these functions is the concept of homeostasis, which describes
the autoregulatory properties of a living being.

 Introduction:

A. The human body consists of 75 trillion cells that vary

considerably in shape and size yet have much in common.

B. Differences in cell shape make different functions possible.

 A Composite Cell:

A. A composite cell includes many different cell structures.

B. A cell consists of three main parts---the nucleus, the cytoplasm,

and the cell membrane.

C. Within the cytoplasm are specialized organelles that perform

specific functions for the cell.
D. Cell Membrane:

1. The cell membrane regulates the movement of substances

in and out of the cell, participates in signal transduction, and helps cells
adhere to other cells.

2. General Characteristics

a. The cell membrane is extremely thin and selectively

permeable.

b. It has a complex surface with adaptations to

increase surface area.
3. Cell Membrane Structure:

a. The basic framework of the cell membrane consists of a

double layer of phospholipids, with fatty acid tails turned inward.

b. Molecules that are soluble in lipids (gases, steroid hormones)

can pass through the lipid bilayer.

c. Embedded cholesterol molecules strengthen the

membrane and help make the membrane less permeable to water-
soluble substances.

d. Many types of proteins are found in the cell membrane,

including transmembrane proteins and peripheral membrane proteins.

e. Membrane proteins perform a variety of functions and vary

in shape.

f. Some proteins function as receptors on the cell surface,

starting signal transduction.

g. Other proteins aid the passage of molecules and ions.

h. Proteins protruding into the cell anchor supportive rods

and tubules.

i. Still other proteins have carbohydrates attached; these

complexes are used in cell identification. Membrane proteins called
cellular adhesion molecules (CAMs) help determine one cell’s
interactions with others.
E. Cytoplasm:

1. The cytoplasm consists of a clear liquid

(cytosol), a supportive cytoskeleton, and networks of
membranes and organelles.

a. Endoplasmic reticulum is made up of membranes,

flattened sacs, and vesicles, and provides a tubular transport system inside
the cell.

i. With ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum

(ER) is rough ER, and functions in protein synthesis.

ii. Without ribosomes, it is smooth ER, and

functions in lipid synthesis.

b. Ribosomes are found with ER and are scattered throughout

the cytoplasm. They are composed of protein and RNA and provide a
structural support for the RNA molecules that come together in protein
synthesis.

c. The Golgi apparatus is composed of flattened sacs, and

refines, packages, modifies, and delivers proteins.

i. Vesicles formed on ER travel to the Golgi apparatus,

which modifies their contents chemically.

[Link] vesicle may then move to the cell membrane and

secrete its contents to the outside.
 iii. Vesicles form a “delivery service”, carrying
chemicals throughout the cell (vesicle trafficking).

d. Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell and contain

enzymes needed for aerobic respiration.

i. The inner membrane of the mitochondrion is folded

into cristae which hold the enzymes needed in energy transformations to
make ATP.

ii. Very active cells contain thousands of

mitochondria.

e. Lysosomes are the "garbage disposals" of the cell and

contain digestive enzymes to break up old cell components and
bacteria.

f. Peroxisomes contain enzymes that function in the

synthesis of bile acids, breakdown of lipids, degradation of rare biochemicals,
and detoxification of alcohol.
 g. Microfilaments and microtubules are thin, threadlike structures
that serve as the cytoskeleton of the cell.

i. Microfilaments, made of actin, cause various cellular

movements.

ii. Microtubules, made of the globular protein tubulin,

are arranged in a 9 + 2 pattern of tubules.

h. A centrosome is made up of two hollow cylinders called

centrioles that function in the separation of chromosomes during cell
division.

i. Cilia and flagella are motile extensions from the cell; shorter cilia
are abundant on the free surfaces of certain epithelial cells(respiratory
linings, for example), and a lengthy flagellum can be found on sperm cells.

j. Vesicles form from part of the cell membrane, or the Golgi

apparatus, and store materials.

F. Cell Nucleus:
 1. The fairly large nucleus is bounded by a double-layered nuclear
membrane containing relatively large nuclear pores that allow the
passage of certain substances.

[Link] nucleolus is composed of RNA and protein and is the

site of ribosome production.

[Link] consists of loosely coiled fibers of protein and

DNA.

 Movements Through Cell Membranes

A. The cell membrane controls what passes through it.

B. Mechanisms of movement across the membrane may be passive,

requiring no energy from the cell (diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and
filtration) or active mechanisms, requiring cellular energy (active transport,
endocytosis, and exocytose)

C. Passive Mechanisms

1. Diffusion

a. Diffusion is caused by the random motion of

molecules and involves the movement of molecules from
an area of greater concentration to one of lesser
concentration until equilibrium is reached.

b. Diffusion enables oxygen and carbon dioxide

molecules to be exchanged between the air and the
blood in the lungs, and between blood and tissue cells.

2. Facilitated Diffusion

a. Facilitated diffusion uses membrane proteins that

function as carriers to move molecules (such as oss the cell
membrane.

b. The number of carrier molecules in the cell membrane

limits the rate of this process.
3. Osmosis

a. Osmosis is a special case of diffusion in which water

moves from an area of greater water concentration (where there
is less osmotic pressure) across a selectively permeable
membrane to an area of lower water concentration (where there
is greater osmotic pressure).

b. Osmotic pressure is the ability of osmosis to lift a

volume of water.

c. A solution with the same osmotic pressure as body

fluids is called isotonic; one with higher osmotic pressure than
body fluids is hypertonic; one with lower osmotic pressure is
hypotonic.
 4. Filtration

a. Because of hydrostatic pressure, molecules can be

forced through embranes by the process of filtration. Blood
pressure is a type of hydrostatic pressure.

D. Active Mechanisms

1. Active Transport

a. Active transport uses ATP to move molecules from

areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration
through carrier molecules in cell membranes.

b. As much as 40% of a cell's energy supply may be

used to fuel this process.

c. The union of the specific particle to be

transported with its carrier protein triggers the release of cellular
energy (ATP), which in turn alters the shape of the carrier
protein, releasing the particle to the other side of the membrane.

d. Particles that are actively transported include sugars,

amino acids, and sodium, potassium, calcium, and hydrogen
ions, as well as nutrient molecules in the intestines.
2. Endocytosis and Exocytosis

a. In endocytosis, molecules that are too large to

be transported by other means are engulfed by an
invagination of the cell membrane and carried into
the cell surrounded by a vesicle.

b. Exocytosis is the reverse of endocytosis.

c. Three forms of endocytosis are pinocytosis,

phagocytosis, and receptor-mediated
endocytosis.

i. Pinocytosis is a form of endocytosis

in which cells engulf liquids.

ii. Phagocytosis is a form of endocytosis in

which the cell takes in larger
 particles, such as a white blood cell
engulfing a bacterium.

iii. Receptor-mediated endocytosis allows

the cell to take in very specific molecules
(ligands) that pair up with specific
receptors on the cell surface.

 The Cell Cycle

A. The series of changes a cell undergoes from the time it is

formed until it reproduces is called the cell cycle.

B. The cell cycle consists of interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis, and

differentiation.

C. The cell cycle is highly regulated. Most cells do not divide

continually. Cells have a maximum number of times they can divide
because of built-in “clocks” (telomeres) on the tips of
chromosomes

D. Interphase
 [Link] is a period of great metabolic activity in which
the cell grows and synthesizes new molecules and organelles.

2. During the S phase of interphase, the DNA of the cell is

replicated in preparation for cell division.

3. During the G1 and G2 phases of interphase, the cell grows

and other structures are duplicated.

E. Mitosis

1. In one type of cell division, meiosis, four cells (sperm or

ova) are produced, each of which contains half of the parent cell’s
genetic information.

2. Mitosis is a carefully orchestrated division of the nucleus

of the cell that results in each daughter cell receiving an exact copy of
the mother cell's genetic material.

3. Mitosis is described as a series of four stages, but the

process is actually continuous.

4. Prophase, the first stage of mitosis, results in the DNA

condensing into chromosomes, centrioles migrating to the poles,
microtubules of the cytoskeleton reorganizing into spindle fibers, and
the disappearance of the nuclear membrane.

5. Metaphase occurs as spindle fibers attach to

centromeres on the chromosomes and the chromosomes align
midway between centrioles.

6. Anaphase occurs as the spindle fibers contract and pull the

sister chromatids toward the centrioles.

7. Telophase, the final stage of mitosis, begins when the

chromosomes have completed their migrations, the nuclear envelope
reappears, and the chromosomes begin to unwind.
F. Cytoplasmic Division

1. Cytokinesis begins during anaphase of mitosis and

continues as a contractile ring pinches the two new cells apart.

2. The two daughter cells may have varying amounts of

cytoplasm and organelles, but they share identical genetic
information.

G. Cell Differentiation

1. The process by which cells develop into different types of

cells with specialized functions is called differentiation.

2. Cell differentiation reflects genetic control of the nucleus as

certain genes are turned on while others are turned off.

H. Cell Death

1. Apoptosis is a form of cell death that is a normal

part of development.
 MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY

Muscle is an excitable tissue. The human body has over 600 muscles which
perform many useful functions and help us in doing everything in day-to-day
life.

Classification of muscles: Muscles are classified by three different methods,

based on different factors:

I. Depending upon the presence or absence of striations; the muscles are

divided into two groups:

1. Striated Muscle: Striated muscle is the muscle which has a large number
of cross striations (transverse lines). Skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle
belong to this category.

2. Non-striated Muscle: Muscle which does not have cross-striations is called

nonstriated muscle. It is also called plain muscle or smooth muscle. It is
found in the wall of the visceral organs.

II. Depending upon the control

1. Voluntary Muscle: Voluntary muscle is the muscle that is controlled by the

[Link] muscles are the voluntary muscles. These muscles are
innervated by somatic nerves.

2. Involuntary Muscle: Muscle that cannot be controlled by the will is called

involuntary muscle. Cardiac muscle and smooth muscle are involuntary
muscles. These muscles are innervated by autonomic nerves.

III. Depending upon the situation.

1. Skeletal Muscle: Skeletal muscle is situated in association with bones

forming the skeletal system. The skeletal muscles form 40% to 50% of body
mass and are voluntary and striated. These muscles are supplied by somatic
nerves. Fibers of the skeletal muscles are arranged in parallel. In most of the
skeletal muscles, muscle fibers are attached to tendons on either end.
Skeletal muscles are anchored to the bones by the tendons.

2. Cardiac Muscle: Cardiac muscle forms the musculature of the heart. These
muscles are striated and involuntary. Cardiac muscles are supplied by
autonomic nerve fibers.
3. Smooth Muscle: Smooth muscle is situated in association with viscera. It is
also called visceral muscle. It is different from skeletal and cardiac muscles
because of the absence of cross striations, hence the name smooth muscle.
Smooth muscle is supplied by autonomic nerve fibers. Smooth muscles form
the main contractile units of wall of the various visceral organs.